cj.iL/.  'o//-. 


PRINCETON,  N.  J. 


% 


% 


Purchased  by  the  Hamill  Missionary  Fund. 


Division 


. YA  B3 


Section 


A 





MANCHURIA 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/manchuriaitspeop00hosi_0 


BRITISH  CONSULATE  AT  NEWCHWANG 


MANCHURIA 

ITS  PEOPLE,  RESOURCES  AND 
RECENT  HISTORY 


ALEXANDER  HOSIE,  M.A.,  F.R.G.S. 


H.  B.M  CONSULAR  SERVICE,  CHINA 
AUTHOR  OF  “THREE  YEARS  IN  WESTERN  CHINA’ 


WITH  MAP,  DIAGRAMS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW  YORK 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER’S  SONS 


1904 


PREFACE 


HE  writer  was  in  charge  of  the  British 


Consulate  at  Newchwang  in  Manchuria,  a 
country  whose  western  frontier  touches  the  Northern 
Chinese  province  of  Chihli  and  Mongolia,  from 
November,  1894,  to  July,  1897,  and  from  April, 
1899,  to  April,  1900,  and  the  following  pages  are, 
most  of  them,  the  work  of  leisure  moments  snatched 
from  a busy  official  life.  In  1896  he  had  to  visit 
the  capital  of  Kirin,  the  central  province,  and, 
returning  to  England  on  furlough  in  summer  of 
the  present  year,  he  journeyed  along  the  eastern 
and  northern  frontiers  of  Manchuria  to  join  the 
Siberian  Railway  at  Stretensk.  The  first  four 
chapters  contain  an  account  of  these  journeys  and 
a history  of  important  events  that  have  recently 
occurred  in  this  part  of  the  Empire  of  China,  while 
the  remaining  chapters  are  devoted  to  a study  of 
the  country,  its  people,  products,  industries  and 
trade.  They  make  no  claim  to  be  a complete 
study  of  the  fatherland  of  the  Manchu  dynasty; 
but  they  have  entailed  an  amount  of  labour  and 


VI 


PREFACE 


research  altogether  incommensurate  with  the  results. 
Chapter  VII.  may  be  cited  as  an  instance.  There 
is  not  a single  product  of  the  country  mentioned 
therein  which  has  not  passed  under  the  writers 
eye,  and  the  industries  connected  with  many  of 
these  products  necessitated  frequent  visits  to  the 
establishments  and  factories  where  they  are  carried 
on.  In  the  one  or  two  cases  in  which  difficulties 
presented  themselves  experts  were  consulted,  and 
the  writer  takes  this  opportunity  of  expressing  his 
indebtedness  for  the  assistance  which  they  so 
willingly  and  efficiently  rendered. 

Few  books  on  Manchuria  have  been  consulted, 
because  there  are  few  to  consult.  Where,  however, 
the  statements  or  opinions  of  others  are  quoted, 
credit  is  given  to  the  authors  in  the  body  of  the 
work. 

There  is  no  good  English  map  of  the  whole 
of  Manchuria,  and  the  author  has  been  compelled 
to  have  recourse  to  Russian  sources  for  a basis  on 
which  to  construct  the  map  which  accompanies  this 
book. 

A.  H. 


Aberdeen,  December , 1 900. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

A Journey  into  Central  Manchuria 

Composition  of  Caravan — Chinese  Passenger  Carts — Millet  Stalks — Hai-ch’eng 
— Devastation  during  the  Chino-Japanese  War — Wells — T’ang-kang-tzi 
and  its  Mineral  Springs — The  Thousand  Hills — Saddle  Hill — Liao-yang — 
Chinese  Caravans — Moukden — T’ieh-ling — The  Importance  of  the  Hai- 
lung-ch’eng  Region — The  Vast  Trade  of  the  Interior — K’ai-yiian — The 
Palisade — Ch’ang-t’u  Fu — T’ung-chiang-tzu — The  Manchurian  Whip — 
Feng-hua  — Slippery  Roads  — Extraordinary  T raffic  — N ose-protectors  — 
K’uan-ch’eng-tzu,  the  Great  Commercial  Mart  of  Manchuria — Attacked  by 
Brigands — Kirin  and  the  Frozen  Sungari — Excursions  round  Kirin — 
Arsenal — Small  Ever-White  Mountain — Dragon  Pool  Hill — A Splendid 
View — Imperial  Highroad — Saved  from  Frost-bite — Captured  Brigands — 
Yi-t’ung — Wei-yiian-p’u-men — Back  to  Moukden  and  Liao-yang — Through 
Niu-chuang — Return  to  the  Port  of  Newchwang  . . . page  i 


CHAPTER  II 

Recent  Events  in  Manchuria 

The  Japanese  Invasion  of  Manchuria — Cession  and  Retrocession  of  the  Liao- 
tung Peninsula — The  Trans-Manchurian  Railway  Agreement — The  Lease 
of  Port  Arthur  and  Ta-lien-wan  to  Russia  and  the  Central  Manchurian 
Railway — The  Chinese  Imperial  Railway  in  Manchuria — Railway  Loan 
Agreement  with  the  Hong-Kong  and  Shanghai  Banking  Corporation — 
Declaration  and  Additional  Note  by  Great  Britain  and  Russia  regarding 


Vlll 


CONTENTS 


Railway  Concessions  in  Manchuria  and  China — Railways  and  Manchurian 
Trade — Bubonic  Plague  in  Manchuria — The  Russian  Invasion  of  Manchuria 

page  39 


CHAPTER  III 


To  Port  Arthur  and  along  the  Eastern  Frontier  of  Manchuria 

Journey  through  Manchuria  Blocked — To  Port  Arthur  by  Rail — My  Travelling 
Companions — Ta-shih-ch’iao  on  the  Central  Manchurian  Railway — The 
Salt  Flats  of  Manchuria — Hai-shen-chai — The  Kai  Chou  River — Hsiung- 
yao  a Banner  Town — The  Hsiung-yao  Bridge — Wa-fang-tien  and  the 
Lu-sheng  Coal  Mines — A Russian  Doctor  Forages — Across  the  Frontier  of 
the  Kuan-tung  Territory  Leased  to  Russia — P’u-la-tien — Chin-chou  T’ing 
under  Chinese  Jurisdiction — Ta-lien-wan  and  Chin-chou  Bays — Chinese 
Hawkers — Russian  Soldiers — Ta-fang-shen  and  the  Branch  Line  to  Ta- 
lien-wan — Nan-san-shih-li-p’u  and  the  Branch  Line  to  Dalny — Port  Arthur 
— Dalny — The  Condition  of  the  Railway — To  Shanghai,  Tientsin  and 
Vladivostock — Chinese  Coolies  for  the  Trans-Manchurian  Railway — The 
Russian  “ Niet  ” — The  Town  of  Vladivostock  and  the  Golden  Horn — 
Vladivostock  to  Habarovsk  by  Rail — The  Ussuri  Railway — Nikolsk  and 
the  Trans-Manchurian  Railway — Agriculture  in  the  Primorsk — Branch 
Line  to  the  Ussuri — A Glimpse  of  the  Amur  and  Habarovsk — Habarovsk 
Hotels page  73 


CHAPTER  IV 

On  the  Amur,  Shilka  and  Trans-Baikal  Railway 

Habarovsk — Monument  to  Count  Muraviev  Amurski — The  Amur — An  Amur 
Mail  Steamer — Our  Start  in  the  Neronov — Fellow  Passengers — Aids  to 
Navigation  of  the  Amur — A Wood-Station  for  Coaling — The  Crew — Ship’s 
Food — Tea  a la  Russe — Four  Days  on  a Sand-spit — Futile  Attempts  to 
Get  Off — A Russian  Officer’s  Prophecy — Rescued  by  the  Nerchugan — A 
Crowded  Ship — Cossack  Stations — Local  Food  Supplies — The  Mouth  of 
the  Sungari — The  Hingan  Gorge — Fine  Scenery — Shallowness  of  the 
Amur — Chinese  Gold-mining  Camps — A Gold  Thief — Celebration  of  Her 
Majesty’s  Birthday — Zakuska — A Difficult  Channel — Cattle  and  Oats — A 
Chinese  and  Manchu  Village — Aigun  and  its  Fort — Ashore  in  a Squall — 


CONTENTS 


IX 


Arrival  at  Blagoveschensk — Palatial  Buildings — An  Electrical  Display — 
Hotels — The  Vladimir  Monomach — Cramped  Quarters — The  Village  of 
Helampo — Prices  in  Blagoveschensk — Bad  Accounts  of  the  Shilka  and 
Trans-Baikal  Railway — Insanitary  Condition  of  Russian  Ships — Tem- 
perature on  the  Amur — Russian  Rafts — Evening  Illuminations — Amur 
Cliff — Blocks  of  Ice — Passed  by  the  Mail  Steamer — Albazin  and  Reinova 
— Snakes — Over  the  Worst  Crossing  in  the  Amur — Mo-ho  and  its  Gold 
Mines — Our  Ship  Bumps  and  Springs  a Leak — Felling  Firewood — Arrival 
at  Pokrovskaia — Desperate  Struggle  for  Passage  to  Stretensk — Crowded 
Barge  and  Tow-boat — Shallowness  of  the  Shilka — Confluence  of  the  Argun 
and  Shilka — Good-bye  to  the  Amur  and  Manchuria — A Manchurian  Bluff 
— Scenery  on  the  Shilka — An  Orotchi  Tent — Successful  Foraging  Ex- 
pedition— Gorbitza — An  Imperial  Mining  Reserve — Ust  Kara  and  its 
Mines — Shilkino — Bolder  Scenery — Stretensk,  the  Eastern  Terminus  of 
the  Siberian  Railway — Deficient  Train  Accommodation — Start  for  Baikal 
in  Guard’s  Van  and  Horse  Box — The  Trans-Baikal  Railway — Kaidalovo, 
the  Junction  of  the  Siberian  and  Manchurian  Lines — Nature  of  the 
Country — Arrival  at  Mysovaia  on  Lake  Baikal — A Dash  for  the  Ice- 
Breaker — Across  the  Lake  in  the  Baikal — London,  fifty-nine  days  from 
China page  97 


CHAPTER  V 

Boundaries,  Physical  Features  and  Climate 

Position  and  Constitution  of  Manchuria — Russo-Chinese  Boundary  Treaties — 
The  Three  Provinces  of  Manchuria — Description  of  Hei-lung-chiang — 
Description  of  Kirin — Description  of  Feng-t’ien — Climate  of  Manchuria 

P*ge  135 

CHAPTER  VI 
People  and  Administration 

Population — Chinese,  Manchus,  Mongols — Chinese  and  Manchus,  a Comparison 
— Manchu  Language  and  Writing — Education — Civil  and  Military  Ad- 
ministrations of  Feng-t’ien — Administration  of  Kirin — Administration  of 
Hei-lung-chiang — Taxation  and  Finances  of  Manchuria  . . page  155 

b 


X 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  VII 

Agriculture  and  Agricultural  Products 

Area  and  Cultivation — Agricultural  Labour — Cereals — Millets — Wheat  and 
Barley — Rice — Indian  Corn — Buckwheat — Rotation  of  Crops — Job’s  Tears 
— Pulse — Bean-curd — Vermicelli — Fibre  Plants -Oil-yielding  Plants — Dye 
Plant — Opium  Poppy — Tobacco — Ginseng  and  other  Medicinal  Plants — 
Vegetables — Fruits  .........  page  172 


CHAPTER  VIII 
Animal  and  Mineral  Products 

Silk — Furs  and  Skins — Bristles — Hair — Felt — Carpets  and  Rugs — Bones  and 
Horns — Musk — Hides — Chamois  Leather — Wax — Fishes — Gold — Silver — 
Copper — Lead — Iron — Coal — Asbestos — Soda  ....  page  199 


CHAPTER  IX 
Special  Industries 

The  Manufacture  of  Bean-cake  and  Bean-oil — The  Manufacture  of  Salt — The 
Manufacture  of  Samshu  (a  native  spirit) page  218 


CHAPTER  X 
The  Trade  of  Manchuria 

Effect  of  Climate  on  Trade — Roads,  Rivers  and  Means  of  Transport — Exports: 
Beans,  Bean-cake  and  Bean-oil ; Silk ; Gold ; Silver ; Ginseng ; Skins  and 
Furs  ; Miscellaneous  Produce — Summary  of  Exports — Distribution  of 
Exports — Imports:  Opium;  Yarn  and  Cotton  Goods;  Woollen  Goods; 
Metals  ; Sundries — American  Competition  in  Cotton  Goods — Railways  and 
the  Import  of  Treasure — Chinese  Imports — Foreign  Shipping — Customs 
Revenue — Native  Shipping  and  the  Value  of  its  Trade — Frontier  Trade  of 
Manchuria — Total  Annual  Value  of  Manchurian  Trade  . . page  236 


CONTENTS 


XL 


APPENDIX  I 

A Year’s  Meteorological  Observations  at  Newchwang 


APPENDIX  II 


. page  263 


Itinerary  of  the  Journey  from  Vladivostock  to  Lake  Baikal 


• P*ge  276 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


BRITISH  CONSULATE  AT  NEWCHWANG  ....  Frontispiece 

BIRTHDAY  OF  H.I.M.  THE  EMPEROR  OF  JAPAN  page 

Celebration  at  Newchwang,  1895 38 

CUTTING  THE  FIRST  SOD  OF  THE  TRANS-MANCHURIAN 

RAILWAY 44 

RUSSIAN  CENTRAL  MANCHURIAN  RAILWAY 

(1)  Russian  Railway  Settlement  near  Newchwang 

(2)  Material  for  Railway 

(3)  American  Locomotive  put  together  at  Russian  Railway 


Settlement 

(4)  Building  Central  Manchurian  Railway  ....  74 

PORT  ARTHUR 

(1)  Narrow  Entrance 

(2)  East  and  West  Bays 

(3)  Dock 80 

VLADIVOSTOCK 

(1)  General  View  of  Town 

(2)  The  Golden  Horn 

(3)  Monument  to  Admiral  Nevelski 90 


THE  USSURI  RAILWAY 

(1)  Scene  on  Line 

(2)  Station  on  Line 

(3)  Bridge  on  Line 94 

HABAROVSK 

(1)  General  View  of  Town 


(2)  Statue  of  Count  Muraviev  Amurski 98 

THE  LOWER  AMUR 

( 1 ) Lower  Amur  in  Winter 

(2)  Tow-boats  and  Barges 108 

BLAGOVESCHENSK 

(1)  East  of  Town 

(2)  West  of  Town 114 

THE  UPPER  AMUR 

(1)  Wood  Station  : Bargaining  for  Fuel 

(2)  Scene  on  River 122 

STRETENSK 

(j)  East  of  Town 

(2)  West  of  Town 128 

TERMINUS  OF  THE  SIBERIAN  RAILWAY  AT  STRETENSK  . . 130 

CORNER  OF  LAKE  BAIKAL 132 

MANCHU  LADY  AND  CHINESE  SERVANT 156 

CHINESE  BEAN  MILL  AT  NEWCHWANG * . 220 

MAP  OF  MANCHURIA 280 


CHAPTER  I 


A JOURNEY  INTO  CENTRAL  MANCHURIA 

ON  the  28th  of  December,  1895,  I received  telegraphic 
instructions  to  proceed  to  Kirin,  the  capital  of  the 
Central  province  of  Manchuria,  to  settle  a long-standing  mis- 
sionary land  case,  and  at  4.30  a.m.  on  the  2nd  January,  1896,. 
my  little  caravan  passed  through  the  gates  of  the  British  Con- 
sulate at  Newchwang  bound  northwards.  The  town  of  Niu- 
chuang,  where  one  of  the  very  few  fierce  struggles  between  the 
Japanese  and  Chinese  during  the  late  war  took  place,  lies  thirty 
miles  inland,  and  the  fact  that  the  port  and  this  inland  town 
are  indiscriminately  called  Newchwang  gave  rise  to  considerable 
confusion  as  to  the  military  operations  during  the  winter  of 
1894-95.  In  the  interior  of  Manchuria  the  port  is  spoken  of  as 
Ying-tzu,  or  more  generally  Ying-kow  ; but  as  outside  Manchuria 
it  is  known  only  as  Newchwang  I shall  continue  to  name  it  so, 
and  always  refer  to  the  inland  town  as  Niu-chuang.  The  caravan 
consisted  of  four  carts — one  for  Lieutenant  Quayle,  R.N.,  of 
H.M.S.  Rattler , who  was  good  enough  to  be  my  companion  ; one 
for  my  Chinese  writer ; one  for  provisions  ; and  the  fourth  for 
myself.  In  addition  to  these  we  had  three  ponies  to  vary  the 
monotony  of  cart  travelling ; but  the  weather  was  so  cold  that 
we  rarely  summoned  up  courage  to  ride.  An  official  messenger, 
a cook,  a horse-boy,  my  writer’s  servant,  the  four  carters,  and 
twelve  mules  and  ponies  completed  the  caravan.  We  were 
provisioned  for  a month,  and  provided  with  fur-lined  clothing 


2 


MANCHURIA 


and  boots  and  fur  rugs  to  enable  us  to  withstand  the  rigours  of 
a Manchurian  winter.  These  precautions  were  very  necessary, 
for  during  the  journey  we  experienced  a temperature  of  34° 
below  zero,  or  66°  of  frost.  Mr.  Quayle  had  a sextant,  with  the 
usual  accompaniments,  and  a fowling-piece  which  on  the  only 
occasion  on  which  it  was  really  required — to  resist  an  attack 
by  mounted  robbers — could  not  be  unearthed  from  its  case,  the 
lock  having  got  jammed  by  the  jolting  of  the  cart  in  which  it 
was  stowed  away,  and  we  each  carried  a revolver,  and  last,  but 
not  least,  I had  packed  away  in  my  cart  an  old  battered  iron 
despatch  box — the  trusty  companion  of  my  travels  in  Western 
China — filled  with  the  more  peaceful  munitions  of  travel — broken 
silver  ingots  of  various  sizes,  the  only  universal  currency  excepting 
copper  cash  in  China. 

As  readers  of  this  book  may  not  be  familiar  with  a Chinese 
passenger  cart, — and  in  this  they  are  extremely  fortunate, — I 
may  as  well  give  a brief  description  of  it  and  of  the  method  of 
travel.  Two  stout  planks  of  elm  are  joined  together  by  cross- 
pieces of  the  same  wood,  the  shafts  measuring  four  feet  ten 
inches  long  and  two  feet  ten  inches  apart.  Behind  the  shafts 
comes  the  driver’s  seat,  some  seventeen  inches  wide,  extending 
across  the  cart  and  forming  part  of  the  bottom,  which  runs 
backwards  for  four  feet  two  inches  and  is  followed  by  a 
framework,  twenty-one  inches  long,  utilised  for  the  stowage  of 
baggage.  The  part  between  the  driver’s  seat  and  the  rear 
framework  is  covered  with  lattice  woodwork  arched  at  the  top 
and  about  three  feet  eight  inches  high,  and  over  the  whole  of 
the  latter  is  spread  blue  native  cloth,  the  interior  in  winter 
being  lined  with  cheap  fur.  In  front  there  is  a curtain  which 
may  be  raised  or  closed  at  pleasure,  with  a small  pane  of  glass 
in  the  centre,  and  there  is  a window  of  similar  dimensions  in 
each  side  of  the  cart.  Firmly  attached  to  the  bottom  is  a 
massive  axle-tree  and  two  wheels,  four  feet  in  diameter,  each 


JOURNEY  INTO  CENTRAL  MANCHURIA  3 


with  sixteen  spokes,  kept  in  position  by  steel  linch-pins.  The 
tire,  which  is  of  iron  half  an  inch  thick,  consists  of  eight  pieces 
eighteen  inches  long  and  frequently  so  knotted  as  to  resemble 
a cog-wheel  nailed  on  to  the  rim,  which  is  one  and  a half  inches 
wide.  The  cart,  therefore,  has  no  springs,  and  the  jolting  and 
bumping  can  be  more  readily  imagined  than  described.  To 
obviate  this  as  much  as  possible  cushions  and  mattresses  are 
utilised ; but  even  these  get  displaced  and  require  constant 
attention.  I found  that  I had  a low  easy  arm-chair,  which 
exactly  fitted  the  breadth  of  the  interior  of  the  cart,  and  on 
this  chair  I sat  for  the  greater  part  of  the  twenty-three  days 
and  nights  of  travel.  Even  this  had  its  drawbacks,  for,  as  I 
have  not  the  advantage  of  being  short,  my  feet  projected  on  to 
the  driver’s  seat,  and,  although  cased  in  fur-lined  boots  and 
covered  with  fur  and  other  rugs,  they  were  always  excessively 
cold  during  the  night  and  early  morning.  The  very  first 
morning  the  driver  happened  by  accident  to  sit  on  one  of  my 
feet,  and,  finding  that  he  imparted  warmth,  I edged  in  the 
other,  and  not  unfrequently  afterwards  did  I adopt  the  same 
tactics.  Owing  to  the  number  of  garments  which  he  wore,  he 
was  not  inconvenienced — at  least  he  made  no  complaint,  and 
I was  a decided  gainer.  Another  discomfort  was  from  our 
moustaches,  which  were  frozen  at  least  a dozen  times  daily  from 
start  till  sunrise,  as  well  as  towards  sunset.  The  process  of 
thawing  the  lumps  of  ice  which  clung  to  them  was  very  painful, 
and,  if  I tried  to  avoid  the  cold  by  burying  my  face  in  my  fur 
coat,  I found  that  my  moustache  was  invariably  frozen  to  the 
fur  collar.  Better  the  ice  than  this ! I am  giving  a few  of  the 
discomforts  now,  and  I am  sorry  to  say  that  I cannot  mention 
any  comforts  to  counterbalance  them,  and  this  for  a very  simple 
reason — there  were  none  ! 

The  great  trade  highway  from  Newchwang  to  Central  and 
Northern  Manchuria  passes  through  the  inland  town  of  Niu- 


4 


MANCHURIA 


chuang,  and  thence  goes  north-east  to  Liao-yang  Chou  and 
onwards  to  Moukden  or  Shen-yang,  the  capital  of  the  southern 
province  of  Manchuria.  It  does  not  touch  Hai-ch’eng ; but,  as 
that  district  city  played  a very  important  part  in  the  war 
between  China  and  Japan,  I determined  to  visit  it  on  my  way 
to  Kirin.  On  the  ten  miles  of  the  highway  between  the  port 
and  Shih-ch’iao-tzu  (“ Stone  Bridge”),  where  the  branch  road 
leads  to  Hai-ch’eng,  we  saw  nothing  of  the  immense  traffic  of 
which  I shall  have  to  speak  hereafter,  for  traffic  in  Manchuria 
is  conducted  on  peculiar  lines,  the  caravans  of  carts  starting 
daily  at  any  hour  from  two  to  four  o’clock  in  the  morning,  and 
reaching  their  destination  (a  distance  of  about  thirty  miles) 
before  nightfall.  The  caravans  which  had  started  south  on  the 
same  day  as  ourselves  had  not  yet  reached  Shih-ch’iao-tzu,  and 
such  as  had  started  the  previous  morning  had  taken  good  care 
to  reach  Newchwang  the  same  evening.  As  I shall  have  occa- 
sion to  mention  hereafter,  accidents  may  retard  a number  of 
caravans  in  company,  and  delay  their  arrival  at  their  proposed 
destination  ,•  and  this  is  well  provided  for  by  solid  inns  or, 
rather,  caravansaries — walled  enclosures  with  buildings  along 
the  sides,  and  large  compounds  in  the  centre  for  the  caravans — 
dotting  the  whole  line  of  the  highroads  on  which  trade  is  con- 
ducted. There  was  a little  local  trade,  and  in  the  bright 
moonlight  I noticed  a number  of  carts  bringing  in  the  daily 
supply  of  firewood  for  the  consumption  of  the  port.  This 
consists  of  millet  stalks  piled  high  in  carts  which  come  into 
Newchwang  every  morning  and  take  up  their  position  on  the 
market-place  adjoining,  and  to  the  west  of,  the  Consulate, 
where  the  loads  are  disposed  of  and  then  distributed  all  over 
the  town.  I am  loath  to  leave  these  millet  stalks  without  a 
few  more  words  regarding  them.  They  are  a very  important 
factor  in  the  trade  of  Manchuria,  and  deserve  more  than  a 
passing  notice.  The  most  valuable  use  to  which  they  are  put 


JOURNEY  INTO  CENTRAL  MANCHURIA  5 


is  the  manufacture  of  coarse  mats  of  various  sizes  and  shapes, 
according  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  intended.  What 
must  strike  every  traveller  in  Manchuria  is  the  matting  which 
rises  high  around  every  large  cart  bringing  produce  from  the 
interior,  and  which  contains  the  loose  loads  of  beans  and  millet. 
It  lines  the  bottom  of  the  cart,  encircles  and  covers  the  con- 
tents, and  keeps  them  firmly  in  position.  If  he  does  not 
observe  this,  he  will  at  least  not  fail  to  notice  the  mat  spread 
on  the  stove  bed  in  the  Chinese  inn  in  which  he  has  to  pass  the 
night.  I venture  to  say  that,  if  he  happens  to  be  travelling  in 
the  hot  weather,  he  will  examine  this  mat  very  carefully,  and, 
if  he  is  a wise  man,  he  will  have  it  taken  up,  well  shaken,  dusted 
and  cleaned  before  he  ventures  to  seek  repose.  The  finer  mats 
are  woven  of  reeds  also  grown  in  Manchuria.  But  I am  wan- 
dering from  the  point,  which  is,  that  these  mats  are  woven  by 
hand  from  the  outer  sheaths  of  millet  stalks.  The  stalks  are 
also  used  for  firewood,  and,  especially  in  the  Feng-t’ien  province, 
for  fencing  houses  and  compounds.  They  are  also  largely 
used  in  house  building ; stalks  are  woven  together  and  plas- 
tered with  mud  to  form  walls  and  roofs.  These  are  the  poorer 
houses  in  the  country.  Large  stacks  of  them  may  be  seen  in 
every  farmyard,  shaped  exactly  like  peat-stacks  in  Scotland. 

From  Shih-ch’iao-tzu  the  road  runs  east  by  north  over  flat 
country  to  Hai-ch’eng,  and  the  farther  we  travelled  the  nearer 
we  approached  the  low  range  of  hills  which  runs  north  from 
the  Liao-tung  peninsula.  Clumps  of  trees,  for  the  most  part 
willows,  elms  and  firs,  marked  the  villages  and  graveyards,  and 
the  magnificent  fields — a contrast  to  the  cultivated  patches  of 
land  in  Central  and  Southern  China — were  one  mass  of  drills, 
from  which  protruded  the  stubble  of  the  various  millets. 
These  drills  looked  exceedingly  neat  and  beautifully  ploughed ; 
but  when  crossed,  as  they  often  were,  by  cart  to  make  a short 
cut  or  to  avoid  a bad  part  of  the  road,  words  fail  me  to 


6 


MANCHURIA 


express  the  disagreeable  sensations  experienced.  Between 
Shih-ch’iao-tzu  and  Hai-ch’eng  we  passed  through  the  village 
of  Kan-wang-chai,  the  scene  of  the  battle  of  19th  December, 
1894,  where  the  Japanese  casualties  were  exceptionally  heavy. 
Had  the  Chinese,  who  were  posted  behind  the  mud  walls  of  the 
village,  been  able  to  use  their  guns  there  would  undoubtedly 
have  been  still  greater  slaughter,  for  the  approach  from  Hai- 
ch’eng,  whence  the  latter  came  to  the  attack,  is  an  exposed 
flat  without  any  cover  whatever.  But  the  Chinese  could  not 
shoot,  and  retired  in  an  undignified  manner  on  Niu-chuang. 
The  city  of  Hai-ch’eng  is  admirably  adapted  for  defence,  and 
the  Japanese,  who  entered  it  by  the  south  gate  without  any 
serious  opposition  on  the  forenoon  of  the  13th  December,  1894, 
and  evacuated  it  on  the  30th  November,  1895,  took  eager 
advantage  of  its  natural  environments  to  make  it  impregnable 
— at  least  against  the  Chinese.  Low  hills  are  found  at  short 
distances  outside  the  four  walls  of  the  city,  and  these  as  well  as 
an  eminence — supposed  to  be  an  old  Corean  fort — in  the  south- 
eastern quarter  of  the  town  itself  were  all  fortified  against 
possible  attempts  to  re-occupy  the  position.  When  we  crossed 
the  plain  to  the  west  of  the  town,  which  we  entered  by  the 
west  gate,  we  came  across  from  time  to  time  remnants  of  earth- 
works which  had  been  thrown  up  by  the  Japanese,  and  the 
fortifications  which  had  been  erected  on  the  old  Corean  fort 
had  evidently  been  destroyed  by  gun-cotton  or  dynamite.  Of 
course  all  the  guns  had  been  removed  at  the  time  of  the 
evacuation. 

At  Pa-li-ho-tzu,  a*  hamlet  some  three  miles  to  the  south- 
west of  Hai-ch’eng,  and  on  the  left  bank  of  a stream  which 
flows  into  the  Hai-ch’eng  river,  we  endeavoured  to  satisfy  the 
cravings  of  hunger ; but  the  innkeeper  told  us  that  he  had  lost 
everything  at  the  hands  of  Chinese  soldiers  during  the  war,  and 
had  been  unable  to  resume  business.  There  was  no  help  for  it 


JOURNEY  INTO  CENTRAL  MANCHURIA  7 


but  to  hurry  on  to  Hai-ch’eng,  which  we  reached  at  3.30  p.m., 
having  struck  the  ice-bound  river  opposite  the  west  wall  of  the 
city.  This  river,  which  flows  along  the  south,  sweeps  north- 
wards along  the  western  wall  past  the  west  gate,  and  flows 
west  by  north  into  the  Hun  Ho,  an  eastern  branch  of  the 
Liao  river,  passing  a little  to  the  north  of  the  inland  town  of 
Niu-chuang.  Our  wants  were  abundantly  satisfied  at  the 
Mission  House  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland, 
where  we  passed  the  night  on  our  way  through  the  city.  I 
noticed  that  great  destruction  had  taken  place,  and  it  is  safe  to 
say  that  in  every  city  occupied  by  the  Japanese  the  same  tale 
could  be  told,  for  houses  foolishly  deserted  by  their  owners  on 
the  approach  of  the  enemy  were  looked  upon  as  legitimate  spoil 
by  the  Chinese  who  remained. 

I observed  on  this,  the  first  stage  of  our  journey,  that  water 
for  household  and  other  purposes  was  obtained  from  wells,  and 
that  the  supply  was  drawn  either  by  a windlass  fixed  over  the 
mouth  of  the  well  or  by  the  method,  so  common  in  Southern 
China,  especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Amoy,  of  a lever 
working  on  a pivot  erected  near  the  well,  and  having  attached 
to  the  thin  end  a rope  and  a bucket  and  to  the  heavier  end  a 
weight  of  stone  or  iron.  This  latter  is  in  fact  the  shadouf  of 
Egypt,  the  lat  of  Northern  and  the  picottah  of  Southern  India. 
The  magistrate  of  Hai-ch’eng  was  absent ; but,  in  accordance 
with  a request  sent  to  the  Yamen,  the  north  gate  of  the  city 
was  to  be  opened  for  us  at  four  o’clock  next  morning,  when 
we  left  for  Liao-yang  Chou,  the  next  stage  of  our  journey.  Of 
course  the  warders  were  asleep  when  we  reached  the  gate,  and 
a quarter  of  an  hour’s  delay  was  the  result.  I did  not  blame 
them  for  preferring  their  beds  to  a bitterly  cold  atmosphere, 
but  my  followers  grumbled  loudly  because  they  were  less  com- 
fortable. It  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  make  reliable  observations 
in  the  moonlight : a bank  of  snow  by  the  roadside  is  magnified 


8 


MANCHURIA 


into  the  snowclad  base  of  a hill  represented  by  the  darkness 
beyond,  while  a bed  of  snow  in  a valley  is  mistaken  for  a river. 
When  daylight  appeared,  however,  I found  that  low  hills  jutted 
into  the  plain  from  the  range  to  the  east,  rendering  the  road, 
which  goes  north  by  east,  less  level  than  to  the  west  of  Hai- 
ch’eng.  Here  and  there  it  lies  between  low  embankments.  In 
every  village  through  which  we  passed  traces,  in  the  shape  of 
ruined  houses,  were  visible  of  the  devastation  caused  by  the 
Chinese  forces  which  were  massed  during  the  war  between 
Hai-ch’eng  and  Liao -yang  to  prevent  the  advance  of  the 
Japanese  to  Moukden.  On  nearing  the  hamlet  of  T’ang- 
chih,  or,  as  it  is  more  generally  called,  T’ang-kang-tzu, 
eighteen  miles  from  Hai-ch’eng,  low  hills  break  into  the  plain 
from  the  east.  They  were  lightly  clad  with  snow,  and  a small 
temple  presides  over  the  few  mud-houses  which  constitute 
the  hamlet.  Here  are  situated  the  famous  sulphur,  I should 
rather  say  mineral,  springs  of  the  province.  Some  care  has 
been  taken  of  them,  for  three  stone  baths  have  been  constructed 
and  a house  built  over  them,  and  outside  there  is  a large 
circular  bath  for  the  general  public.  The  water,  which  was 
tepid,  was  several  feet  deep,  and  there  was  a whitish  efflorescence 
of  sulphur  on  the  encircling  stones  and  withered  herbage. 
The  air  was  laden  with  an  odour  far  from  pleasant.  I was 
induced  by  a friend  who  was  taking  the  waters  internally 
and  externally  to  join  him  in  his  morning  draught ; but  I 
regretted  my  imprudence,  and  the  companion  of  my  journey, 
who  declined  the  proffered  cup,  had  his  knowledge  increased 
by  my  self-sacrifice.  He  acquired  the  knowledge ; but  I flatter 
myself  that  my  knowledge  was  more  perfect,  gained  as  it 
was  through  pain.  A few  miles  to  the  east  of  T’ang-kang-tzu 
are  the  Ch’ien  Shan,  a cluster  of  hills  culminating  in  peaks, 
none  appearing  to  rise  higher  than  a thousand  feet.  The  name 
means  “the  Thousand  Hills,”  and  there  is  a legend  that  the 


JOURNEY  INTO  CENTRAL  MANCHURIA  9 


original  number  was  999,  but,  as  this  idyllic  odd  number  was 
unsatisfactory,  an  artificial  hill  was  added  to  make  the  thou- 
sand. I was  surprised  to  hear  it,  for  the  Chinese  are  very  fond 
of  odd  numbers,  but  to  have  to  say  Chiu  pai  chiu  Mh  chiu 
shan  (“  the  999  Hills  ”)  every  time  reference  had  to  be  made  to 
them  may  have  settled  the  necessity  of  adding  a hill,  and  thereby 
curtailing  the  name  to  two  characters.  They  looked  very  in- 
viting even  in  winter,  and  I am  informed  by  fellow-countrymen 
who  have  visited  them  that  in  spring  they  are  clad  with  a great 
variety  of  beautiful  flowers.  There  are  temples,  too,  available 
for  residence,  and  at  one  of  these,  Lung-ch’uan  Ssu  (“  the  Temple 
of  the  Dragon  Spring  ”),  there  is  an  unceasing  supply  of  crystal 
water.  Four  miles  north  by  east  of  T’ang-kang-tzu  is  the 
village  of  An-shan-chan,  the  most  northerly  point  reached  by 
the  Japanese  during  their  invasion  of  Manchuria.  Under  pre- 
tence of  advancing  on  Liao-yang  from  Hai-ch’eng  they  pushed 
forward  as  far  as  An-shan-chan,  and  then  turned  south-west  to 
Niu-chuang,  leaving  the  Chinese,  who  had  fallen  back  on  Sha- 
ho-tzu  and  Liao-yang,  utterly  bewildered  as  to  their  movements. 
The  village,  which  is  situated  at  the  north  end  of  a short  valley 
near  the  right  bank  of  a small  stream  flowing  west  by  north 
to  the  eastern  branch  of  the  Liao  River,  consists  of  a long 
street  in  ruins,  and  at  the  north  end  a square,  high  walled 
enclosure,  with  a few  houses  inside,  evidently  a dilapidated 
camp.  It  derives  its  name  from  a hill  immediately  to  the  east 
of  it — An-shan,  or  44  Saddle  Hill,”  so  called  from  a depression 
in  its  centre.  To  the  west  a few  low  hills  of  bare  granite  are 
to  be  seen.  If  Saddle  Hill  had  been  well  fortified  a handful  of 
brave  men  who  knew  their  duty  could  have  held  this  road 
against  an  overwhelming  force.  North  of  An-shan-chan  the 
country  opens  out  into  a broad  level  plain,  and  following  this 
for  ten  miles  we  struck  Sha-ho-tzu,  a bustling  town  built  on 
both  banks  of  another  tributary  of  the  Eastern  Liao.  The  day 


10 


MANCHURIA 


was  well  advanced  when  we  crossed  the  frozen  stream,  and  we 
had  to  push  on  to  reach  our  destination  for  the  night,  still 
eleven  miles  distant.  Six  miles  from  Sha-ho-tzu  a range  of  low 
hills  (Shou  Shan)  creeps  into  the  plain  from  the  east,  and 
separates  it  from  the  Liao-yang  plain.  On  the  low  pass  there 
were  traces  of  earthworks  which  had  been  thrown  up  during  the 
war,  and  to  all  appearances  guns  had  been  mounted  here. 
Darkness  was  setting  in  as  we  passed  through  the  large  village 
of  Pa-li-chuang,  and  the  carters  were  unwilling  to  go  on ; but  I 
knew  that  comfortable  quarters  awaited  us  at  the  mission 
station  within  the  city  walls,  where  we  were  kindly  welcomed 
and  hospitably  entertained  by  friends  at  7.80  p.m.  We  were 
thus  fifteen  and  a quarter  hours  on  the  road  from  Hai-ch’eng 
to  Liao-yang,  and  if  two  hours  be  deducted  for  rest  and  refresh- 
ment, thirteen  hours’  actual  travelling  time  remains.  The  dis- 
tance covered  was  forty-four  and  one-third  miles,  and  this 
agrees  pretty  closely  with  what  we  afterwards  discovered,  namely, 
that  the  average  speed  of  a cart  is  ten  li,  or  three  and  a third 
miles  an  hour.  Liao-yang,  at  one  time  the  capital  of  Liao- 
tung, is  a city  with  many  historical  associations,  but  into  these 
I do  not  enter,  for  this  chapter  is  intended  to  be  a record  of 
travel  and  nothing  more.  It  is  surrounded  by  a high  wall  of 
stone  and  brick,  with  a gate  in  each  of  its  four  sides.  There  is 
only  one  low  eminence  within  the  walls,  and  that  is  occupied 
by  the  Treasury.  The  population  is  estimated  at  50,000.  It 
is  a great  centre  for  distilling  the  native  spirit  called  samshu. 
The  neighbourhood  is  famous  for  its  fruits,  which  include  pears, 
grapes,  peaches  and  cherries.  The  country  is  fairly  well  wooded, 
the  willow,  pine  and  elm  predominating,  and  in  the  bare 
branches  of  the  latter  bunches  of  mistletoe  were  growing.  We 
did  not  leave  the  North  Gate  of  Liao-yang  till  10  a.m.  next 
morning,  the  4th  of  January,  being  somewhat  fatigued  by  our 
long  journey  the  previous  day.  On  our  way  to  the  gate  we 


JOURNEY  INTO  CENTRAL  MANCHURIA  11 


noticed  the  lofty  pagoda,  which  lies  outside  the  north-west 
angle  of  the  city  walls.  Three  roads,  known  as  the  west,  middle 
and  east  roads  respectively,  lead  from  Liao-yang  to  Moukden, 
the  capital  of  the  Southern  province  of  Feng-t’ien.  We  selected 
the  middle  road,  and,  after  covering  a little  less  than  three  miles, 
struck  the  left  bank  of  the  T"ai-tzu  Ho.  This  stream,  also  called 
the  Ch’a  Ho,  or  Erh-tao  Ho  (“Two  Branch  River  ”),  rises  in  the 
hills  near  the  Eastern  Palisade,  flows  west  by  south  for  some 
fifty  miles,  then  west  by  north  to  the  north-east  angle  of  the 
walls  of  Liao-yang,  where  it  turns  north  and  west  to  join  the 
Eastern  Liao.  It  bifurcates  on  nearing  the  city,  and  again 
reunites  to  the  north-west  of  Liao-yang  at  a place  called  Huang- 
lin-tzu.  A distance  of  about  a thousand  yards  separates  their 
shingle  beds,  with  wooden  bridges  thrown  over  them  and  layers 
of  millet  stalks  spread  on  the  top  to  form  the  roadway.  The 
two  branches  were  of  course  frozen  and  easily  fordable  on  the 
ice.  North  of  Liao-yang  the  range  of  hills  to  the  east  which 
we  had  in  sight  since  starting  recedes  to  a greater  distance, 
leaving  an  immense  agricultural  district,  dotted  with  farm- 
houses, embowered  in  trees,  which  also  mark  the  positions  of 
graveyards  with  their  mud,  cone-shaped  mounds.  Between 
Liao-yang  and  Hsiao-yen-Pai,  where,  owing  to  our  late  start, 
we  were  obliged  to  spend  the  night,  we  met  several  large 
caravans  with  beans,  tobacco,  abutilon  hemp  (the  fibre  of 
Abutilon  avicemiae,  Gaertn.)  and  frozen  pigs  lashed  in  every 
possible  position  around  the  laden  carts.  These  pigs,  which 
were  all  scraped  and  dressed,  were  usually  of  large  size,  weighing 
as  much  as  200  to  300  lb.  apiece.  They  are  fed  in  the 
province  of  Kirin  on  millet  and  the  refuse  of  distilleries,  killed 
in  winter  and  brought  down  from  the  interior  for  consumption 
during  the  cold  weather.  As  it  would  be  too  expensive  to  bring 
the  millet  itself,  it  is  converted  into  spirits  and  pork,  which 
find  a ready  sale  everywhere.  A single  caravan  often  numbers 


12 


MANCHURIA 


as  many  as  twenty  large  carts,  each  with  a team  of  seven 
animals.  In  the  best  caravans,  that  is  those  which  go  into 
the  provinces  of  Kirin  and  Hei-lung-chiang  and  into  Mongolia, 
a team  usually  consists  of  a pony  in  the  shafts  and  six  tracing 
mules  three  abreast.  In  the  case  of  caravans  or  carts  going 
shorter  distances,  teams  are  all  ponies,  mixed  mules  and  ponies, 
or  a mixture  of  mules,  ponies,  donkeys,  or  even  oxen. 

Twenty  miles  still  separated  us  from  Moukden,  the  capital 
of  the  province,  and  at  3.45  a.m.  on  the  5th  of  January  we 
proceeded  north  by  east  over  the  frozen  fields,  crossing  drills 
and  taking  the  mud  boundary  dykes  at  a canter.  After  covering 
thirteen  miles  we  entered  the  village  of  Pai-t’a-p’u,  where  the 
middle  and  west  roads  unite.  As  the  name  implies,  the  village 
has  a pagoda  visible  at  some  distance  in  this  flat  country.  Four 
miles  beyond  we  struck  the  left  bank  of  the  frozen  Hun  Ho, 
whose  pebbly  bed  is  of  very  considerable  breadth.  In  the  open 
season  the  Hun  Ho  is  not  navigable  as  far  as  Moukden : junks 
of  any  draught  do  not  ascend  beyond  a distance  of  ten  miles 
from  the  capital.  At  page  67  of  Mr.  James’s  book,  The 
Long  White  Mountain , there  is  a picture  of  a Lama  monument 
not  far  from  the  south  gate.  As  a matter  of  fact  there  are  four 
of  these,  one  outside  each  of  the  four  angles  of  the  city.  We 
passed  the  Nan  T’a  (“  Southern  Pagoda  ”)  on  our  right  two 
miles  from  the  river,  and  soon  after  struck  the  southern  suburb, 
which  we  skirted  eastward  to  the  Scotch  Mission  Station,  which 
we  reached  at  11  a.m.,  and  where  we  were  warmly  welcomed 
and  spent  the  rest  of  the  day  and  night.  A small  stream, 
now  of  course  frozen,  flows  along  the  southern  suburb,  which 
is  very  extensive,  and  its  bed  contains  numerous  springs  of  fine 
clear  water.  As  my  business  was  urgent,  we  made  no  stay  at 
Moukden,  but  hurried  on  next  morning  towards  Kirin.  On  our 
return,  however,  we  spent  the  4th  of  February  in  the  capital  of 
Feng-t’ien,  and  I may  here  insert  a brief  description  of  it.  It 


JOURNEY  INTO  CENTRAL  MANCHURIA  13 


lies  some  320  feet  above  sea  level,  and  its  lofty  crenellated  brick 
walls,  with  eight  towering  gateways  and  the  usual  buttresses,  en- 
close a square  mile  of  ground  covered  with  one-storied  brick 
houses.  There  is  also  a suburb  surrounded  by  a mud  wall. 
The  main  streets,  which  lead  to  the  eight  gates,  are  wide,  with 
narrow  side  streets  and  lanes.  Except  for  its  size,  one  might 
readily  imagine  oneself  back  in  Peking,  and  the  resemblance 
extends  even  to  the  filth.  Nurhachu,  the  founder  of  the  Manchu 
dynasty,  shifted  his  capital  from  Liao-yang  to  Moukden  in  1625, 
and  in  1631,  during  the  reign  of  his  fourth  son  and  successor, 
T’ai  Tsung,  the  present  wall  and  Imperial  Palace  were  built. 
The  latter  we  had  the  opportunity  of  passing  through,  as,  on 
arrival  at  the  walls  of  the  forbidden  city,  we  found  a gate  open 
and  naturally  entered.  It  was  small  and  had  an  aged  and 
deserted  look  about  it,  but  was  in  a fair  state  of  preservation. 
The  roofs  of  the  palace  and  pavilions  attached  to  it  were  of 
yellow  and  blue  tiles.  We  traversed  the  main  streets,  crowded 
with  country  people  making  their  purchases  for  the  China  New 
Year ; visited  a gun  factory,  where  sporting  matchlocks  were 
being  turned  out  at  $4  apiece ; proceeded  outside  the  East  Gate 
to  the  handsome  church  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Scotland,  and  in  the  afternoon  walked  to  the  Temple  of  Earth 
— a walled  oblong  piece  of  land  surrounded  by  a brick  wall, 
now  doorless,  outside  the  East  wall — and  to  the  tomb  of  the 
Chinese  statesman  Wen  Hsiang,  who,  originally  a table-boy, 
was  educated  by  his  master,  married  his  daughter,  and  rose  to 
be  a member  of  the  Grand  Secretariat,  President  of  several  of 
the  Six  Boards,  and  a member  of  the  Tsungli  Yamen.  He  died 
on  the  26th  of  May,  1876,  and  was  buried  in  the  beautiful  little 
graveyard  outside  his  native  city.  The  remains  of  the  father- 
in-law  lie  a little  to  the  east  of  his  protege’s  tomb.  We  also 
visited  the  wards  of  Dr.  Christie’s  Hospital,  where  excellent  work 
is  being  done  for  suffering  humanity,  and  where  a number  of 


14 


MANCHURIA 


students  are  being  taught  medicine  and  surgery.  In  1893  Dr. 
Christie  had  539  in-patients,  and  performed  954  operations,  of 
which  914  were  cured,  36  improved,  3 not  improved,  and  only 
one  died. 

At  5.30  a.m.  on  the  6th  of  January  we  left  Moukden  to 
make  the  district  city  of  T’ieh-ling  before  nightfall,  but  we  only 
succeeded  in  covering  thirty  miles,  and  had  to  put  up  for  the 
night  at  the  village  of  Fan-chia-t’un,  which  lies  pleasantly 
situated  at  the  base  of  hills  jutting  in  from  the  receding  eastern 
range.  The  country  north  of  Moukden  is  well  wooded  with 
elm,  willow  and  pine,  and  carts  laden  with  fir  branches  were 
entering  the  capital  as  we  left  it.  Mistletoe  was  growing 
luxuriantly  on  the  elms.  Thirteen  miles  from  Moukden  we 
crossed  a streamlet,  the  P’u  Ho,  a tributary  of  the  Western 
Liao,  before  entering  the  village  of  the  same  name,  where  we 
breakfasted.  The  country  between  Moukden  and  Fan-chia-t’un 
is  hilly,  and  the  road  we  traversed  is  known  as  the  hill  road,  in 
contradistinction  to  a more  level  road  to  the  west.  About 
fourteen  miles  separate  Fan-chia-t’un  from  T’ieh-ling  Hsien, 
a very  important  district  city  near  the  left  bank  of  a stream 
called  the  Ts’ai  Ho.  We  entered  it  at  8 a.m.  on  the  7th  of 
January,  and  as  a telegraph  office  had  recently  been  established 
here  I was  able  to  send  a message  to  the  Governor  at  Kirin 
notifying  him  of  my  progress.  T’ieh-ling  is,  owing  to  its 
position  on  the  Liao,  a very  important  place,  and  it  has  become 
still  more  important  within  the  last  two  or  three  years,  on 
account  of  the  opening  up  and  development  of  the  country  to 
the  east  of  it,  and  notably  the  Hai-lung-ch’eng  region.  The 
late  war  between  China  and  Japan  drove  great  numbers  of 
people  from  the  south  of  the  peninsula,  and  they  had  to  seek 
a livelihood  elsewhere.  They  went  north  to  Hai-lung-ch’eng, 
and  devoted  themselves  to  agriculture  in  that  fertile  region. 
The  result  is  evident  to-day. 


JOURNEY  INTO  CENTRAL  MANCHURIA  15 


As  we  entered  the  city  we  encountered  string  after  string 
of  carts  laden  with  beans,  which  were  being  deposited  in  the 
numerous  pawn-shops  to  be  seen  on  all  sides.  These  shops  are 
not  only  pawn-shops  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  they 
contain  also  large  compounds,  where  beans,  millet  and  other 
products  are  stored  in  ricks,  encircled  with  the  matting  already 
referred  to,  till  the  river  opens  in  the  spring.  The  tops  of  the 
ricks  were  everywhere  visible,  and  more  were  being  added.  I 
noticed  on  the  sign-boards  of  these  shops,  which  were  sur- 
rounded by  high  crenellated  brick  walls,  with  guns  and  rifles 
showing,  that  arms  would  not  be  received  in  pawn.  So  great 
was  the  bustle  and  confusion  in  the  streets  that  our  mounted 
escort  had  some  difficulty  in  clearing  a way  for  us  to  get  to  an 
inn.  The  place  was  full  of  blacksmiths’  shops,  where  horse- 
shoes were  being  turned  out,  the  iron  coming  from  a range  of 
hills  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  giving  the  name  to  the  city — 
T’ieh-ling,  or  44  Iron  Range  ”.  Crossing  the  sandy  bed  of  the 
Ts’ai  Ho,  the  road  runs  north  by  east  along  a plain  bounded 
by  low  hills,  which  were  partly  clad  with  snow.  Gradually  the 
hills  close  in  and  give  place  to  another  plain  of  similar  propor- 
tions, again  landing  us  to  the  north  in  somewhat  broken 
country.  I have  travelled  in  different  parts  of  China,  I have 
seen  the  great  salt  and  piece  goods  traffic  between  Ssu-ch’uan, 
Kwei-chow  and  Yunnan,  but  I never  saw  a sight  which  from 
its  magnitude  impresssed  me  so  much  with  the  vast  trade  of 
China  as  the  carrying  trade  from  north  to  south  in  Manchuria. 
Until  late  in  the  afternoon,  when,  owing  to  a snowstorm,  we 
had  to  abandon  the  possibility  of  making  the  city  of  K’ai-yuan 
Hsien  that  night,  we  met  at  least  a thousand  carts  heavily  laden 
with  the  produce  of  the  interior,  including  beans,  tobacco, 
abutilon  hemp,  dressed  pigs,  skins  and  large  droves  of  black  pigs 
all  bound  south.  If  we  take  the  average  team  to  have  numbered 
five  animals,  we  met  some  five  thousand  animals  in  one  day. 


16 


MANCHURIA 


At  one  place,  where  a difficult  gully  had  to  be  crossed,  there  was 
at  least  one  mile  of  carts,  three  deep,  waiting  their  turn  to  pass 
it.  Numbers  of  men  and  boys  were  to  be  seen  on  the  roads 
vying  with  each  other  in  collecting  the  droppings  of  animals, 
which  they  scoop  into  wicker  baskets.  Much  valuable  manure 
is  thus  collected  and  utilised  in  the  adjoining  fields.  Many 
a cart  comes  to  grief,  and  many  a lame  animal  follows  behind 
its  cart.  To-day  I saw  one  cart  topple  over  at  a difficult  part 
of  the  road,  and  the  poor  pony  in  the  shafts  struggling  to  get 
up.  At  another  place  the  axle  had  snapped  and  the  cart  lay 
useless.  Owing  to  the  snowstorm  in  which  we  were  caught 
little  could  be  seen  of  the  country.  It  was  sparsely  wooded, 
dreary  and  uninteresting,  and  the  cold  wras  intense ; our  furs 
were  not  a sufficient  protection.  In  the  last  of  a caravan  of 
carts  from  beyond  the  Palisade  I noticed  a couple  of  coffins 
mixed  up  with  abutilon  hemp  and  bean-oil.  They  were 
tenanted ; but  later  on  we  met  loads  of  new  coffins  and  parts  of 
coffins  all  ready  to  be  fixed  together  on  arrival  at  their  destina- 
tion. Bean-oil  is  carried  in  two  different  ways : in  wicker 
baskets  made  of  willow  twigs  lined  with  waterproof  paper,  the 
baskets  being  of  various  sizes,  sometimes  as  large  as  a cart  itself, 
and  capable  of  containing  800  pounds  of  oil,  or,  for  rough 
roads,  w^ooden  boxes,  beautifully  dovetailed,  containing  360 
pounds  of  oil.  Most  of  the  oil  which  comes  to  the  port  is 
earned  in  boxes,  whence  the  oil  is  transferred  to  baskets  for 
export  by  steamer.  The  oil  is  used  both  for  culinary  and 
lighting  purposes. 

We  spent  the  night  of  the  7th  of  January  at  the  village  of 
Sun-chia-t’ai,  six  miles  south  of  the  district  city  of  K’ai-yuan 
Hsien,  and,  starting  at  four  o’clock  next  morning,  we  crossed 
two  hours  later  a frozen  stream — the  Ching  Ho,  a tributary  of 
the  Western  Liao- — and  passed  westwrard  outside  the  south  wall 
of  the  city  and  northwards  skirting  the  western  wall.  It  was 


JOURNEY  INTO  CENTRAL  MANCHURIA  17 


still  dark  when  we  struck  the  city,  and  we  saw  nothing  but 
the  high  dark  walls  looming  on  our  right.  K’ai-yiian  was  the 
scene  of  one  of  Nurhachu’s  greatest  victories  over  the  Chinese. 
The  country  to  the  north  of  the  city  is  broken  and  undulating, 
and  at  a distance  of  seven  miles  we  entered  the  village  of 
Ma-chien-t’ai,  just  within  the  Palisade,  which  at  one  time 
stretched  from  the  Great  Wall  of  China  north-east  across  the 
Sungari  in  the  province  of  Kirin.  A gateway  and  a row  of 
willows  were  the  only  things  that  marked  the  site  of  the 
palisade  erected  during  the  Ming  dynasty  to  keep  back  the 
Mongol  hordes.  Near  Ma-chien-t’ai  another  palisade  joined 
the  Western  Palisade,  whence  it  ran  east  and  south  a little  to 
the  east  of  the  Imperial  tombs  near  Hsing-king,  and  to  the 
east  and  south  of  Feng-huang  T’ing.  This  latter  was  intended 
to  prevent  the  raids  of  Tartar  tribes  occupying  the  country  to 
the  north  and  east.  Little  but  the  gates,  each  with  its  guard 
of  a few  soldiers,  remains  of  both  palisades.  Six  miles  to  the 
north  of  the  Palisade  is  the  un walled  city  of  Yu-shih-ch’eng-tzu, 
now  the  seat  of  a prefect  and  called  Ch’ang-t’u  Fu.  It  lies  in 
a plain,  to  gain  which  we  followed  the  road  over  low  rounded 
but  evidently  cultivated  hill-tops.  The  country  near  the  city, 
which  is  mostly  built  of  grey  bricks,  is  well  wooded.  Twenty 
miles  west  by  south  of  Ch’ang-t’u  Fu,  and  at  the  junction  of 
the  two  streams  which  form  the  headwaters  of  the  Western 
Liao,  there  is  a very  important  trade  centre  called  T’ung-chiang- 
tzu  (“River  Junction”),  whither  much  of  the  produce  of 
South-eastern  Mongolia  and  Kirin  is  brought  for  shipment. 
Indeed,  the  western  stream  comes  from  Mongolia  itself.  North 
of  Ch’ang-t’u  Fu,  through  which  a stream  of  traffic  flows  to 
T’ung-chiang-tzu,  the  country  continues  hilly  and  undulating, 
dotted  here  and  there  with  farmhouses  nestling  amid  elm 
trees,  but  there  is  an  absence  of  the  larger  villages  so  common 

further  south.  During  the  whole  of  winter  little  life  is  seen 
2 


18 


MANCHURIA 


away  from  the  highways,  where  the  whole  energy  of  the  country 
centres  in  the  conduct  of  the  immense  traffic  to  the  trade  depots. 
In  spring  and  summer  and  autumn,  on  the  other  hand,  when 
the  icy  grasp  of  winter  is  relaxed  and  the  rivers  are  open  to 
navigation,  the  roads,  owing  to  their  softness,  are  all  but 
deserted,  and  the  teams  and  their  drivers,  reinforced  by  many 
thousands  of  labourers — annual  immigrants  from  the  provinces 
of  Shantung  and  Chihli — devote  themselves  to  the  cultivation 
of  the  products  of  Manchurian  soil.  At  6 p.m.  on  the  evening 
of  the  8th  of  January  we  stopped  for  the  night  at  the  large 
village  of  T’zu-lu-shu,  having  covered  forty  miles  since  morning. 
Here  we  had  some  difficulty  in  finding  lodgment,  for  it  was  full 
of  caravans  bound  south.  During  the  day  we  met  caravans 
laden  with  beans,  abutilon  hemp,  dressed  pigs,  coffin  wood  and 
especially  tobacco.  Several  droves  of  pigs  were  also  going 
south.  It  was  bitterly  cold  in  the  morning  and  evening,  the 
windows  of  my  cart  were  frosted  hard,  and  my  moustache  was 
frozen  to  the  fur  collar  of  my  overcoat. 

At  a quarter  past  four  next  morning  we  were  again  proceed- 
ing northwards,  and  at  eight  o’clock  we  entered  the  village  of 
Ssu-p’ing-kai,  fifteen  miles  from  T’zu-lu-shu.  It  was  very  dark 
when  we  started  ; each  carter  had  a paper  lantern  attached  to 
one  of  the  shafts  of  his  cart,  and  long  lines  of  similar  lanterns 
ahead  heralded  the  approach  of  strings  of  caravans.  Owing  to 
the  length  of  the  teams  of  large  carts  each  driver  walks  with 
a lantern  in  his  hand  to  show  his  team  the  way.  During  the 
day  he  sits  on  the  top  of  the  load  in  front,  and  with  voice  and 
whip  urges  on  his  team.  A Manchurian  whip  is  a very  formid- 
able weapon.  It  is  about  twelve  feet  long,  with  a thong  of 
equal  length.  The  butt  end  is  usually  a sapling  or  stout 
branch  of  a tree,  and  lashed  to  it  is  a tip  several  feet  long, 
composed  of  three  strips  of  split  bamboo  woven  together  to 
a point  to  give  the  necessary  elasticity.  In  the  hands — it 


JOURNEY  INTO  CENTRAL  MANCHURIA  19 


requires  both  hands  to  wield  it — of  a skilful  teamster  it  can  be 
used  most  effectively,  for  he  can  reach  any  lagging  animal  of 
the  long  team  without  punishing  another.  From  behind,  the 
whips  of  a caravan  look  like  so  many  rod-fishers  in  the  act  of 
casting  their  lines. 

North  of  Ssu-p'ing-kai  the  road  runs  over  the  same  undulat- 
ing but  less  wooded  country,  and  after  twelve  miles  we  dropped 
down  into  the  unwalled  city  of  Mai-mai-kai,  or  Feng-hua 
Hsien,  the  seat  of  a district  magistrate.  It  was  a very  busy 
place,  and  caravan  after  caravan  was  passing  through  it.  The 
carters  were  anxious  to  remain  here  for  the  night,  declaring 
that  millet  for  their  animals  was  absurdly  cheap,  but,  as  a little 
too  much  attention  was  paid  to  us  by  the  populace,  I told  them 
to  buy  the  millet  and  bring  it  along.  This  they  did  and  off 
we  started,  much,  I fear,  to  the  regret  of  the  crowd  that  sur- 
rounded us.  Four  miles  more  brought  us  to  the  hamlet  of  Pien- 
lien-ch’eng,  where  we  entered  a very  large  inn,  only  to  be  told 
that  there  was  no  accommodation  for  us ; but  our  escort,  always 
most  useful  on  such  occasions,  promptly  ejected  the  innkeeper 
and  his  staff  from  a large  room  used  as  an  office  and  installed 
us  therein.  There  was  no  rest  for  us,  however,  until  bedtime, 
for  under  one  pretext  or  another  the  servants  of  the  inn  kept 
entering  our  room  from  the  end  where  a screen  formed  the  door. 
So  many  things  had  been  forgotten  ; in  other  words,  they  wanted 
to  inspect  us  and  our  belongings.  But  the  four  miles1  traffic 
between  Mai-mai-kai  and  Pien-lien-cffeng  was  a revelation  to 
me.  The  road  is  downhill,  and  up  struggled  the  heavily-laden 
carts  with  their  great  loads  of  beans,  abutilon  hemp,  frozen 
pigs,  dog  skins,  immense  logs  of  red  pine  about  three  feet  in 
diameter,  tobacco,  samshu  in  baskets  lined  with  oil-paper,  and 
other  articles,  while  down  rushed  empty  carts  at  full  speed. 
Our  carters  and  animals  caught  the  excitement,  and  down  we 
raced  over  a splendid  wide  road,  polished  by  wheel  and  hoof, 


20 


MANCHURIA 


and  shining  like  a mirror.  So  far  as  traffic  is  concerned,  the 
scene  reminded  me  of  the  Strand  on  one  of  its  busiest  days. 
I was  surprised  at  the  traffic  north  of  T’ieh-ling,  but  this  was 
far  more  imposing. 

We  left  Pien-lien-ch’eng  at  4.15  a.m.  on  the  10th  of 
January  in  darkness  and  intense  cold,  meeting  on  the  way 
hundreds  of  carts  with  their  lanterns  shining  brightly.  Here, 
curiously  enough,  one  of  my  ponies  had  the  misfortune  to  part 
company  overnight  with  his  fine  metal-mounted  foreign  head 
stall ! The  present  owner  has  long  ere  now  discovered  that 
“ it’s  not  all  gold  that  glitters  The  road  continues  downhill, 
and  mules  and  ponies  were  falling  everywhere  and  regaining 
their  feet  without  receiving  any  apparent  injury.  These 
animals  are  exceedingly  clever.  When  the  carters  prefer  the 
fields  to  the  road,  it  is  very  often  necessary  to  make  a fairly 
steep  descent  to  get  back  to  the  latter,  and  then  comes  the 
opportunity  for  the  pony  in  the  shafts  to  show  his  surefooted- 
ness. Down  goes  the  team,  and  the  little  animal  in  the  shafts 
places  his  four  feet  together  and  slides  down  the  incline.  He 
takes  good  care  not  to  rush  the  slope  like  the  tracers,  but  he  is 
frequently  dragged  to  the  ground  in  spite  of  all  his  efforts. 
There  was  a range  of  low  hills,  the  summits  just  visible,  to  the 
eastward,  some  ten  miles  from  the  road,  and  with  this  exception 
all  that  was  to  be  seen  was  the  sun,  the  blue  heavens  and 
the  rolling  fields,  an  eastern  prolongation  of  the  Mongolian 
plains  to  the  westward.  The  country  was  comparatively  well 
wooded  with  elm  and  willow  and  dotted  about  with  farm- 
houses, and  here  and  there  I observed  a plantation  of  young 
trees  to  all  appearance  carefully  tended.  From  Kuo-chia-p’u, 
a village  distant  some  twenty-eight  miles  from  Pien-lien-ch’eng, 
and  where  we  had  our  forenoon  meal,  we  proceeded  northwards 
over  a fine  level  road,  in  company  with  numerous  empty  carts 
on  their  way  to  K’uan-ch’eng-tzu  for  produce.  The  traffic  was 


* 


JOURNEY  INTO  CENTRAL  MANCHURIA  21 

again  extraordinary.  Four  rows  of  carts  again  occupied  the 
road,  each  cart  vying  with  the  other  to  get  ahead  in  the  race. 
A check  occurs,  and  all  have  to  come  to  a standstill ; a large 
cart  going  south  has  upset,  and  the  beans  are  scattered  all  over 
the  roadway.  These  accidents  and  blocks  are  taken  as  a matter 
of  course,  and  a way  has  to  be  cleared  before  traffic  can  be 
resumed. 

Five  miles  north  of  Kuo-chia-p'u  we  struck  the  left  bank  of 
the  eastern  branch  of  the  Western  Liao  at  the  southern  en- 
trance to  the  village  of  Ch^ao-yang-p'o . Here  it  was  a narrow, 
frozen  stream.  North  of  Ch’ao-yang-p'o  snow  had  fallen 
heavily,  and  on  its  hard,  slippery  surface  mules  and  ponies 
were  rolling  about  in  the  most  reckless  manner,  and,  as  our  own 
teams  proved  equally  reckless,  we  had  to  abandon  the  idea  of 
making  Ta-hei-lin-tzu,  which  we  had  marked  out  as  our  resting- 
place  for  the  night.  Caravans  with  the  usual  produce  were 
met  passing  south  all  day,  and  we  also  encountered  six  droves 
of  pigs  going  to  Moukden — black  every  one  of  them.  Most  of 
the  carters  seen  during  the  day  wore  nose-protectors  against 
frost-bite.  A protector  usually  consisted  of  a cloth  band — the 
centre  diamond-shaped  and  covering  the  nose — connecting  the 
two  sides  of  a cap  fastened  under  the  chin.  Others  wore 
woollen  masks,  leaving  only  the  eyes  exposed.  I frequently 
found  it  necessary  to  tie  my  handkerchief  round  my  head  across 
my  nose  in  the  early  mornings.  It  was  impossible  to  hold  the 
handkerchief  in  position  with  the  hands,  for  the  latter,  encased 
as  they  were  in  lined  gloves,  became  so  intensely  cold  and 
painful  that  I had  to  tear  the  gloves  off  with  my  teeth  and 
wrap  my  hands  in  the  capacious  sleeves  of  my  fur-lined  coat. 
North  by  east  of  Ch’ao-yang-p'o  the  country  is  well  wooded, 
and  by  the  roadside  grew  numerous  clumps  of  willow  bushes 
springing  up  from  the  roots  of  old  trees.  Some  eight  miles 
north  of  Ch’ao-yang-p'o  is  the  village  of  Ka-lou,  and  here  we 


22 


MANCHURIA 


had  to  spend  the  night  with  the  assurance  by  the  cartel's  that 
they  would  easily  land  us  at  K'uan-ch’eng-tzu  or  Ch’ang-ch'un 
Fu,  the  most  important  commercial  mart  in  Manchuria,  on  the 
morrow.  This  they  did,  but  it  took  them  fourteen  and  a 
quarter  hours,  for  we  started  at  4.15  a.m.  and  did  not  reach  the 
city  till  6.30  p.m.  My  friends  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Ireland  Mission  received  us  warmly,  and  it  was  with  some 
difficulty  that  we  escaped  from  them  on  the  afternoon  of  the 
following  day,  the  12th  of  January.  We  had  now  reached  the 
most  northern  point  of  our  journey,  and  entered  the  province  of 
Kirin  on  its  western  side.  K'uan-ch’eng-tzu,  which  lies  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Yi-t’ung,  a tributary  of  the  Sungari,  is,  as 
stated  above,  the  chief  commercial  mart  in  Manchuria.  It  is 
the  distributing  centre  for  trade  to  and  from  Northern  Kirin, 
Hei-lung-chiang  and  Eastern  Mongolia.  The  city  itself,  the 
population  of  which  is  estimated  at  about  120,000,  really  stands 
on  Mongol  soil,  and  contains  a Mongol  office  for  the  collection 
of  land  and  other  taxes ; but  for  administrative  purposes  it 
is  incorporated  with  the  province  of  Kirin.  Besides  being  a 
distributing  centre,  it  is  also  the  seat  of  several  important 
industries,  such  as  the  manufacture  of  indigo  and  felt.  The 
former  is  derived  from  Polygonum  tinctorium , L.,  and  the  latter 
is  made  of  ox-hair.  The  city,  which  is  surrounded  by  a mud 
wall,  measures  roughly  four  by  one  and  a third  miles,  and 
presented  a scene  of  bustle  and  excitement.  We  had  no  time 
to  explore  the  place,  for  the  Prefect  paid  me  a lengthened  visit, 
and  in  the  course  of  the  interview  informed  me  that  he  had 
received  instructions  from  the  Tartar  General  or  Military 
Governor  of  the  province  of  Kirin  to  provide  a suitable 
escort  to  conduct  us  in  safety  to  the  provincial  capital,  still 
eighty  miles  distant.  Eight  cavalrymen,  armed  with  breech 
and  muzzle-loaders  of  various  patterns  and  swords,  were  ac- 
cordingly in  attendance  when  we  were  about  to  start,  but. 


JOURNEY  INTO  CENTRAL  MANCHURIA  23 


hearing  them  grumbling  because  they  had  received  no  money 
for  travelling  expenses,  I told  the  petty  officer  in  charge  to 
proceed  to  his  superior  officer  for  the  necessary  funds.  He  was 
successful  in  his  mission,  and  off  we  started  at  2.30  p.m.  in  an 
easterly  direction  for  the  city  of  Kirin.  We  had  not  gone 
more  than  seven  miles  when  the  escort  hinted  that  it  would  not 
be  safe  to  proceed  further  that  day.  This  rather  staggered  us, 
as  the  only  house  in  sight  was  a wretched  hovel,  consisting  of 
one  common  room  and  a small  room  ; but  the  cavalrymen  were 
equal  to  the  occasion,  and  induced  the  occupants  to  give  up  the 
large  room  for  our  sole  use  during  the  night.  After  we  had 
settled  down,  my  writer,  who  had  meantime  been  interviewed 
by  the  escort,  came  and  reported  that  the  road  between 
K’uan-ch’eng-tzu  and  Kirin  was  very  unsafe,  that  brigandage 
was  of  common  occurrence,  that  inns  were  few  and  far  between, 
and  that  to  go  on  till  dark  would  simply  be  to  court  danger. 
The  stories  related  by  the  escort  must  have  been  very  harrowing, 
for  he  was  visibly  in  a state  of  panic,  and  we  thought  it  as  well 
to  look  to  our  means  of  defence,  and  had  our  revolvers  and 
ammunition  overhauled. 

We  left  our  miserable  quarters  at  Hou-pai-tzu  at  4.15  a.m. 
on  the  13th  of  January,  and  once  more  struck  east  by  south. 
Several  ranges  of  low  hills  lay  ahead  of  us  ; some  were  cultivated, 
others  were  russet  with  scrub-oak.  Over  and  round  these 
meandered  the  roadway,  covered  a foot  deep  with  snow.  Sixteen 
miles  brought  us  to  the  hamlet  of  Shih-ch’ang  (“  Stone  Quarry  ”), 
where  large  granite  millstones  were  being  turned  out,  and 
three  miles  beyond  we  crossed  a frozen  stream — the  Yi-mu, 
a tributary  of  the  Yi-t’ung,  which  passes  K’uan-ch’eng-tzu. 
At  11  a.m.  we  halted  at  Hei-shan-tsui-tzu  for  a meal.  It  was 
a solitary  inn  at  the  foot  of  a low  conical  hill  clad  with  scrub- 
oak.  We  had  not  long  seated  ourselves  on  the  Wang  in  a 
small  room  at  the  west  end  of  the  common  room,  and  were 


24 


MANCHURIA 


making  notes  of  the  day’s  journey,  while  our  cook  was  busy 
lighting  a fire  to  prepare  our  midday  meal,  when  bang  went 
a number  of  guns,  bullets  whistling  over  the  inn.  All  at  once 
there  was  the  greatest  excitement;  carters  rushed  out  into 
the  courtyard,  which  was  full  of  carts;  our  escort  snatched 
up  their  guns  and  followed  their  example ; and  my  companion 
and  I sallied  out  with  our  revolvers  to  do  battle  for  our 
property.  We  were  attacked  by  brigands.  Our  escort  were 
soon  blazing  away  at  different  angles  of  the  compound,  which 
was  surrounded  by  a high  fence  of  willow  and  oak  branches, 
of  which  the  gate  itself  was  also  made.  Stray  shots  came 
whistling  along;  but,  as  we  could  see  nobody  to  fire  at,  we 
returned  to  the  room,  leaving  the  escort  to  carry  on  the  war. 
Here  I found  the  writer  cowering  behind  the  Wang — the  raised 
brick  platform  containing  the  brick  flues  or  heating  apparatus  on 
both  sides  of  the  interior  of  the  inn — in  what  may  be  described 
as  a state  of  absolute  funk,  and,  when  I asked  him  what  he  was 
doing,  he  had  some  difficulty  in  replying  that  he  was  guarding 
my  property  during  my  absence  ! The  said  property  consisted  of 
an  overcoat,  a couple  of  notebooks,  a pencil  and  a compass.  Now 
and  then  the  escort  rushed  in  advising  us  not  to  be  afraid,  and  I 
as  often  told  them  that  we  were  not  at  all  afraid  as  we  could 
depend  upon  our  revolvers.  This  was  not  exactly  what  they 
wanted,  for  they  evidently  required  as  much  cheering  up  as  my 
writer.  When,  however,  a bullet  came  whistling  into  the  room 
in  which  we  were  seated  and  scattered  the  mud  from  the 
opposite  wall,  we  thought  things  were  getting  rather  hot,  and 
again  sallied  out  to  battle.  My  companion’s  blood  was  now  up, 
and,  snatching  the  Winchester  repeater  from  the  sergeant  of 
the  escort,  he  determined  to  get  a long  shot.  By  this  time  my 
companion’s  gun-case  had  been  extracted  from  his  cart  by  the 
cook ; but,  in  spite  of  the  prayers  of  the  escort,  who  carried 
muzzle-loaders,  for  shot,  we  were  unable  to  open  it,  the  lock 


JOURNEY  INTO  CENTRAL  MANCHURIA  25 


having  got  jammed  by  the  jolting  of  the  cart.  When  we 
rushed  into  the  courtyard  the  second  time  the  gate  suddenly 
flew  open  and  in  dashed  a laden  cart,  the  carter  urging  his 
team  at  full  speed.  46  Shut  the  gate ! shut  the  gate ! ” was 
shouted  on  all  sides ; but  before  that  could  be  done  in  crawled 
a white  pony — a veritable  bag  of  bones.  This  the  escort 
annexed,  declaring  that  it  belonged  to  the  brigands,  and,  as 
nobody  else  claimed  it,  thev  at  once  entered  into  possession  of 
this  trophy  of  war.  My  companion  did  not  get  a chance  with 
the  sergeant’s  Winchester,  for  the  firing  became  more  desultory 
and  soon  ceased.  The  brigands  had  gone  west,  and  a verbal 
message  was  sent  to  us,  through  Chinese  travellers  who  came 
into  the  inn,  that  had  they  known  we  were  foreigners  they 
would  not  have  attacked  us ; that  they  had  no  animus  against 
foreigners;  and  that  they  would  now  allow  us  to  pass  unmo- 
lested. Five  men  afterwards  came  in  and  declared  that  they 
had  been  robbed  of  their  fur  clothing.  A discussion  now  arose 
among  the  members  of  the  escort  as  to  the  number  of  the 
brigands;  some  said  forty-two,  others  forty-four;  but  the 
majority  seemed  to  hold  by  the  higher  number.  They  may 
have  been  right,  but  neither  my  companion  nor  I saw  one. 
They  maintained  that  they  wounded  several  of  them,  and  when 
we  came  to  review  the  loss  on  our  side  we  discovered  a pony 
yoked  in  a cart  in  the  middle  of  the  courtyard  with  a fresh 
wound  under  one  of  its  fetlocks.  We  afterwards  met  from  time 
to  time  many  men  in  chains  on  their  way  to  the  capital  of  the 
province,  and  I have  reliable  authority  for  stating  that  about 
a thousand  heads  fall  every  year.  There  was  little  cultivation 
among  these  hills,  and  high  brushwood  afforded  excellent 
cover  for  robber  bands.  What  struck  me  as  being  very  peculiar 
in  the  whole  affair  was  the  utter  indifference  of  the  employes  of 
the  inn : they  went  about  their  usual  duties  as  if  nothing  was 
happening,  and  I came  to  the  conclusion  either  that  they  were 


26 


MANCHURIA 


inured  to  these  affrays,  or  that  they  were  hand-in-glove  with 
the  brigands.  I am  inclined  to  think  that  the  latter  is  the 
more  reasonable  conclusion. 

Having  finished  our  meal,  the  preparation  of  which  had 
been  so  unwarrantably  delayed,  we  left  the  inn  ready  for  action, 
but  not  a trace  of  a brigand  was  to  be  seen.  Emerging  from 
the  hills  at  2 p.m.  we  entered  on  an  undulating,  fairly  wooded 
country,  and  put  up  for  the  night  at  Hsin-lung-tien,  where  the 
local  military  authority  informed  me  that  he  had  received  in- 
structions from  the  Tartar  General  to  add  four  more  cavalry- 
men to  our  escort.  Of  trade  we  saw  little  during  the  day : 
coffins,  coffin-wood,  tobacco,  charcoal  and  dressed  pigs  were 
being  conveyed  to  K’uan-ch’eng-tzu  mostly  in  sleighs. 

It  was  intensely  cold  when  we  again  faced  eastwards  on  the 
morning  of  the  14th  of  January.  At  five  o’clock  the  coats  of 
our  teams  were  all  frosted  white  and  the  queues  of  the  drivers 
and  even  the  hairs  of  my  overcoat  were  all  of  like  colour.  The 
road  passed  over  flat  then  undulating  country,  crossed  low 
hills,  surmounted  a low  range  and  entered  the  village  of  Ta- 
shui-ho,  the  junction  of  the  commercial  and  imperial  roads 
from  Moukden  to  Kirin.  Three  miles  west  of  Ta-shui-ho  we 
crossed  a small  stream  and  another  at  Ta-shui-ho  itself.  These 
unite  further  north  and  go  to  join  the  Sungari.  Before  entering 
the  village  we  struck  the  telegraph  line  from  the  south,  which 
runs  north  through  Kirin  and  Tsitsihar  to  Russian  Siberia  at 
Blagoveschensk.  On  leaving  Ta-shui-ho  we  entered  among 
low  hills  russet  with  scrub-oak,  and  apparently  forming  the 
western  foothills  of  a range  about  3,000  feet  high  further  to 
the  east.  The  road  winds  out  and  in  among  these  hills,  seeking 
an  eastern  outlet,  and  at  a distance  of  seven  miles  from  Ta- 
shui-ho  reaches  its  highest  altitude  at  the  low  but  steep  Lao-yeh 
Ling  Pass.  Perched  on  the  summit  of  the  pass  are  two  beautiful 
temples — Ling-yen-ssu  and  Kuan-ti  Miao — in  excellent  repair, 


JOURNEY  INTO  CENTRAL  MANCHURIA  27 


and  one  can  imagine  what  a lovely  spot  this  must  be  when  the 
oaks,  willows  and  elms,  which  thickly  dot  the  hills  and  encircle 
the  temples,  have  decked  themselves  in  their  summer  greenery. 
Even  in  winter,  with  its  mantle  of  snow,  the  pass  was  enticing. 
We  descended  to  the  hamlet  of  Erh-tao-ling-tzu,  where  we 
remained  for  the  night.  We  had  hoped  to  make  Kirin  before 
dark,  but  we  were  still  about  ten  miles  from  the  Mission  House 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Ireland,  which  lies  outside  the 
east  gate  of  the  city,  whence  Dr.  Greig  had  sent  a cordial 
invitation  to  us  by  special  messenger  to  make  his  house  our 
home  during  our  visit.  The  messenger  met  us  early  that 
morning,  and  had  returned  with  our  acceptance  of  the  kind 
invitation.  We  did  not  leave  Erh-tao-ling-tzu  next  morning 
till  6.30  o'clock,  and  at  grey  dawn  Dr.  Greig  and  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Crawford  of  the  Irish  Mission,  who  had  come  out  in  their 
sleigh  to  meet-  us,  gave  us  a hearty  welcome.  They  insisted  on 
our  taking  their  places  in  the  sleigh.  Two  low  ridges  still  hid 
our  destination  from  view,  and,  on  surmounting  the  latter,  we 
came  in  sight  of  Kirin  and  the  frozen  Sungari  just  as  the  sun 
began  to  peep  over  the  eastern  hills. 

The  city  of  Kirin,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  that  name, 
in  lat.  43°  49'  N.,  and  long.  126°  46'  27"  E.,  occupies  for  two 
miles  the  left  bank  of  the  Sungari,  in  a bend  where  the  river 
sweeps  from  west  to  east  on  its  way  to  join  the  Amur.  It  also 
goes  by  the  name  of  Ch’uan  Ch’ang,  or  46  Dockyard,"  because  it 
is  the  chief  boatbuilding  centre  on  the  Sungari.  It  stretches 
northwards  from  the  river  somewhat  irregularly,  and  is  sur- 
rounded, except  on  the  river  side,  by  a crenellated  grey  brick 
wall  some  thirteen  feet  high,  with  eight  gates.  Houses,  many 
of  them  on  piles,  face  the  river,  whence  a number  of  gates  give 
access  to  the  town.  Here  the  valley  of  the  Sungari  lies  within 
an  amphitheatre  of  hills,  which  were  all  clad  with  snow  at  the 
time  of  our  visit.  There  is  an  extensive  growing  suburb  outside 


28 


MANCHURIA 


the  west  wall  of  the  city,  and  here,  at  a stone’s  throw  from  the 
road  leading  to  the  west  gate,  is  the  execution  ground,  while 
the  branches  of  a row  of  trees  to  the  south  of  the  roadway  are 
utilised  for  exposing  the  heads  of  criminals.  We  entered  the 
city  by  the  west  gate,  and  passed  through  it  along  the  street 
which  skirts  the  left  bank  of  the  Sungari,  emerging  by  the 
small  east  gate.  A mile  from  the  latter  is  the  station  of  the 
Irish  Mission,  where  we  were  most  comfortably  housed  and 
hospitably  entertained  for  a fortnight.  During  the  first  few 
days  of  our  residence  I was  busy  discussing  and  settling  with 
the  native  authorities  the  case  which  had  brought  me  to  Kirin, 
and  when  that  was  finished  I had  leisure  to  visit  the  city  and 
the  sights  in  its  neighbourhood.  I should  mention  that  eight 
mounted  men — part  of  the  governor’s  bodyguard — were  always 
in  attendance  upon  us.  One  day  we  descended  to  the  Sungari, 
which  in  winter  is  utilised  as  a highway  for  sleighs,  carts, 
horsemen  and  foot  passengers,  skirted  the  city  for  some  distance, 
passing  piles  of  wood  floated  down  the  river  in  the  season  and 
caravansaries  surrounded  by  long  wooden  piles  standing  vertically 
in  the  frozen  river,  entered  the  city  and  crossed  it  from  south 
to  north,  recrossing  it  from  west  to  east  on  our  return.  The 
western  part  of  the  city  is  occupied  for  the  most  part  by  public 
offices  and  the  residences  of  retired  officials,  while  the  centre 
and  east  are  given  up  to  business.  The  population  cannot  be 
far  short  of  100,000.  I noticed  many  good  shops  and  one  or 
two  pretty  temples.  The  streets,  some  of  which  are  paved  with 
wood,  are  not  so  wide  as  those  of  Moukden : they  were  covered 
with  hard  snow,  but  in  the  rainy  season,  according  to  Mr.  James,1 
they  are  a quagmire.  What  must  strike  every  visitor  to  Kirin 
is  the  vast  quantity  of  wood  used  in  fencing  compounds.  Long, 
huge  logs  grooved  on  two  sides  are  driven  into  the  ground  six 


1 The  Long  White  Mountain , p.  283. 


JOURNEY  INTO  CENTRAL  MANCHURIA  29 


to  eight  feet  apart,  and  the  ends  of  planks,  many  of  them 
several  inches  thick,  are  dropped  into  the  grooves,  thus  forming 
a wall.  Did  the  carpenters  of  Kirin  possess  decent  nails,  at 
least  two-thirds  of  this  valuable  timber  could  be  saved  for  other 
purposes.  And  the  workers  in  wood  of  Kirin  are  exceedingly 
skilful.  Furniture,  in  fact,  is  one  of  the  specialties  of  the  city. 
I saw  shops  full  of  beautiful  oak  cabinets,  chairs  and  small  low 
tables  for  serving  food  on  Wangs.  These  little  tables  appeared 
to  me  so  graceful  and  neat  that  I promptly  bought  four  of 
them.  Another  special  industry  of  Kirin  is  the  tanning  of  hides 
and  the  manufacture  of  shoes.  The  wu-la , or  Manchurian  shoe, 
as  it  may  be  called,  is  of  peculiar  make.  The  uppers  and  sole 
are  one  piece  of  brown  leather  gathered  in  over  the  toe  by  hemp 
twine,  with  an  angle-shaped  tongue  sewed  to  the  uppers,  and 
rising  over  the  instep  to  keep  out  the  snow.  The  sides  are  rudely 
sewed  at  the  heel  like  a foreign  shoe,  but  a small  semi-circular 
piece  of  leather — a prolongation  of  the  sole — is  drawn  over  and 
sewed  half  up  the  back  to  keep  the  two  sides  together  and  in 
proper  position.  Two  large  nail  heads,  riveted  through  the 
sole,  usually  form  the  heel.  The  shoes  are  fastened  to  the 
feet  by  thongs  of  raw  hide  passing  through  eyelets  in  the 
uppers.  These  shoes  are  worn  only  in  winter,  when  they  are 
padded  with  a fine  grass  which  grows  to  a height  of  about 
two  feet  in  the  marshy  lands  of  Kirin  and  Hei-lung-chiang. 
This  grass,  called  wu-la-ts’ao , is  softened  for  use  by  beating 
with  a wooden  mallet. 

We  fared  sumptuously  in  Kirin  : frozen  fish,  including  the 
sturgeon,  were  exposed  in  heaps  on  the  streets  for  sale,  and 
frozen  game  included  partridge,  pheasant,  deer,  antelope  and 
wild  boar.  The  Governor  presented  me  with  a deer,  an  antelope, 
several  kinds  of  fish  (including  two  sturgeon),  a box  of  frogs  and 
another  of  sparrows — all  frozen. 

Two  miles  to  the  south-east  of  the  city  and  in  the  same  bend 


30 


MANCHURIA 


of  the  river  is  the  arsenal,  which  the  director  kindly  threw  open 
to  our  inspection.  His  predecessor,  Sung  Taotai,  who  enter- 
tained Mr.  James  and  his  party  in  November,  1886,  was  also 
present,  but  he  was  living  at  the  arsenal  as  a guest,  having 
been  appointed  director  of  a gold-mining  semi-official  syndicate 
at  San-sing,  whither  he  was  bound.  After  conducting  us  over 
the  building,  where  we  saw  cartridges  and  gingals  being  turned 
out,  they  insisted,  although  I had  expressly  requested  that  no 
preparations  should  be  made,  on  our  sitting  down  to  a feast. 
In  spite  of  the  fact  that  we  had  just  finished  our  midday  meal, 
we  were  unable  to  resist  the  kindness  of  our  entertainers ; but  I 
fear  that  we  failed  to  do  j ustice  to  the  sumptuous  repast  which 
was  spread  temptingly  before  us.  Every  available  delicacy  was 
produced ; even  hot  samshu  and  iced  champagne  were  not 
wanting.  On  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river  are  the  powder 
mills,  also  surrounded  by  a high  wall.  These  we  did  not  visit. 
The  breadth  of  the  river  between  the  arsenal  and  the  mills  is 
about  300  yards.  Oak  charcoal  is  the  principal  fuel  used  in 
the  arsenal ; it  is  said  to  be  much  cheaper  than  coal,  which  can 
also  be  had  in  abundance.  Charcoal  costs  only  one  cash  a 
catty,  or  about  $168  a ton,  whereas  coal  costs  from  $3  to  $6  a 
ton,  according  to  quality.  The  inferior  coal  is  soft  and  burns 
rapidly.  Both  fuels  come  down  the  Sungari. 

Some  four  miles  to  the  south-west  of  the  city,  and  a mile 
or  more  from  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  rises  the  Hsiao  Ch’ang- 
pai  Shan  (“  Small  Ever-White  Mountain  ”)  of  which  the  Ch'ang- 
pai  Shan  (“Ever-White  Mountain”),  in  the  south-east  of  the  pro- 
vince, is  the  prototype.  It  is  reserved  as  a hunting  ground  for 
the  Emperor.  This  we  visited  on  the  23rd  of  January,  sleighing 
along  the  Sungari  till  it  is  joined  on  the  west  bank  by  a small 
tributary,  which  we  ascended  for  a short  distance,  and  then 
struck  overland  to  the  base  of  the  hill.  It  is  thickly  wooded 
with  oak,  and  here  and  there  a few  pines.  On  sloping  ground 


JOURNEY  INTO  CENTRAL  MANCHURIA  31 


at  the  base  there  is  a corral  enclosed  by  high  timber  logs  driven 
into  the  ground,  and  containing  about  fifty  deer.  There  are 
three  hill-tops,  none  exceeding  500  feet  in  height.  One  of  these 
is  crowned  by  a small  temple,  to  which  we  ascended  through 
snow  a foot  in  depth.  The  temple,  which  stands  on  a stone 
platform  three  feet  high,  and  measures  nineteen  yards  long  by 
seven  yards  broad,  consists  of  a single  lofty  room  with  pillars 
and  ceiling  beautifully  painted  in  blue  and  gold.  The  eaves  of 
the  roof  project  on  the  four  sides,  forming  a verandah  supported 
by  twenty-two  fine  wooden  pillars  painted  red.  In  front  there  is 
a small  courtyard  with  a few  stone  steps  leading  to  the  entrance. 
The  whole  is  surrounded  by  a stone  wall  with  two  gates.  In  the 
middle  of  the  room  there  is  a small  altar  with  a black-lacquered 
wooden  tablet  inscribed  in  Manchu  and  Chinese  gold  characters, 
“ The  Genii  of  the  Ever- White  Mountain  In  front  of  the 
tablet  is  a censer  for  holding  the  joss  sticks.  Hither  twice 
a year,  in  the  second  and  eighth  Chinese  months,  the  Military 
Governor  and  his  subordinates  repair,  and,  in  the  Emperor's 
name,  do  homage  to  the  genii  of  the  ancestral  house  of  the 
Manchu  Dynasty.  They  prostrate  themselves  outside  the  open 
doorway  facing  the  altar,  as  no  one  dares  enter  the  holy  of  holies. 
From  the  Hsiao  Ch’ang-pai  Shan  caps  of  deer-skin  are  sent  to 
Peking  twice  a year  for  the  Emperor’s  use. 

Next  day  we  made  an  excursion  to  the  Lung-t’an  Shan 
(“  Dragon  Pool  Hill  ”),  which  lies  to  the  north-east  of  the  city, 
and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Sungari.  We  struck  the  left 
bank  of  the  river,  where  a couple  of  steam  launches  were 
docked — one  was  frozen  in,  and  had  her  hull  at  the  water-line 
cased  with  straw  to  prevent  her  being  nipped  by  the  surround- 
ing ice,  which  bore  signs  of  being  frequently  broken,  and  the 
other,  the  smaller  of  the  two,  had  been  dragged  on  to  the  top 
of  the  ice.  Proceeding  northwards  along  the  left  bank,  we 
passed  a low  rounded  hill  (Tuan-shan-tzu),  which  projects  into 


32 


MANCHURIA 


the  river  from  the  right  bank,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
a neck  of  low  land.  This  hill,  which  still  bears  evidence  of 
having  been  fortified,  is  supposed  to  have  been  in  former  times 
a Corean  stronghold.  Near  this  place  a cable  crosses  the  river 
and  connects  the  land  lines.  To  the  north  of  this  there  was  a 
strip  of  open  water  at  some  distance  from  the  right  bank,  where 
a couple  of  dab-chicks  were  busy  diving.  As  the  thermometer 
had  that  morning  registered  27°  below  zero,  Fahr.,  there  can  be 
little  doubt  that  the  open  water  was  due  to  the  presence  of 
springs  in  the  bed  of  the  river.  The  Lung-t’an  Shan  presents 
a fairly  precipitous  face  to  the  river,  and  we  crossed  to  the  right 
bank  at  the  north  end  of  the  hill.  A few  hundred  yards  inland 
the  telegraph  branches,  one  line  going  north  to  Tsitsihar  and 
Helampo,  the  other  east  to  Hun-ch’un.  Ascending  the  hill 
from  the  rear  we  soon  reached  the  temple  and  the  small  dragon 
pool,  now  frozen,  passed  a sacred  elm  enclosed  by  a wooden 
rail,  and  soon  reached  the  summit  of  the  hill,  whence  we  had 
a splendid  view  of  the  valley,  700  feet  below,  the  winding 
Sungari,  and  the  city  of  Kirin,  with  their  encircling  hills  all 
robed  in  a mantle  of  snow.  This  temple  is  a favourite  resort 
of  officials  and  people  of  Kirin  in  summer ; here  they  come  to 
feast  and  while  away  an  idle  hour  or  two  under  the  shadow  of 
the  oaks  and  elms  with  which  the  whole  hill  is  clad. 

We  left  Kirin  at  10  a.m.  on  the  28th  of  January  on  our 
return  to  the  port.  Instead  of  retracing  our  steps  by  way  of 
K’uan-ch’eng-tzu  we  resolved  to  follow  the  imperial  highroad, 
which  runs  south-west  from  Kirin  and  joins  the  main  road  a 
little  to  the  south  of  K’ai-yiian  Hsien.  To  effect  this,  however, 
we  had  to  return  to  Ta-shui-ho,  where  these  two  roads  branch. 
As  more  snow  had  fallen  on  the  two  days  previous  to  our 
departure,  our  carters  were  unwilling  to  attempt  the  Lao-yeh 
Ling  Pass,  fearing  it  would  be  blocked.  We  accordingly  skirted 
the  bases  of  the  hills  west  by  south-west  for  some  distance,  then 


JOURNEY  INTO  CENTRAL  MANCHURIA  33 


entered  among  them,  and,  crossing  a low  pass,  descended  through 
narrow  valleys  till  we  struck  the  road  leading  to  the  Lao-yeh 
Ling,  which  we  had  thus  circumvented.  This  we  followed  to 
Ta-shui-ho,  which  we  now  found  full  of  soldiers  returning  to 
Hei-lung-chiang  from  the  south.  Dr.  Greig  and  Mr.  Crawford 
accompanied  us  outside  the  west  gate,  a petty  official  armed 
with  the  Governor’s  card  awaited  us  outside  the  west  suburb 
and  wished  us  bon  voyage  on  His  Excellency’s  behalf,  and  we 
were  provided  with  an  escort  of  six  mounted  men  to  see  us 
safely  to  the  frontier  of  the  province.  From  Ta-shui-ho  the 
road  goes  west  by  south  over  undulating  country,  each  wave  of 
land  sinking  lower  as  we  advanced.  To  the  east  there  is  a 
range  of  low  hills  following  the  direction  of  the  road.  At 
the  end  of  twenty-five  miles  we  struck  a plain,  at  the  north 
end  of  which  lies  the  village  of  Ch’a-lu-ho,  cut  in  two  by  a 
stream  of  the  same  name  on  its  way  north-west  to  join  the 
Yi-t’ung  and  the  Sungari.  We  started  at  2.30  a.m.,  and  found 
the  morning  bitterly  cold.  Just  after  sunrise  we  left  our  carts 
for  a walk  over  the  snow,  and  my  companion  at  once  remarked 
that  my  nose,  with  the  exception  of  a round  snow-white  spot 
the  size  of  a ten  cent  piece  on  the  tip,  was  very  red.  It  was 
numb,  and  vigorous  rubbing  for  half  an  hour  induced  circula- 
tion and  saved  me  from  frost-bite.  As  usual,  the  carters’ 
queues  and  the  animals’  coats  were  frozen  white.  In  the  inn  at 
Ch’a-lu-ho,  where  we  had  a meal,  a number  of  brigands  in 
chains  were  being  fed  ; they  were  bound  for  Kirin,  and  were 
carefully  guarded.  Crossing  the  plain  we  again  entered  on 
rough,  undulating  country,  evidently  little  cultivated.  The 
telegraph  line  runs  straight  across,  but  the  road  winds  about  in 
order  to  circumvent  numerous  gullies  which  had  every  appear- 
ance of  being  swept  out  by  the  rains.  At  5 p.m.  we  stopped 
for  the  night  at  the  hamlet  of  La-yao-tzu,  having  been  on  the 

road  for  fourteen  and  a half  hours  and  covered  forty-three 
3 


34 


MANCHURIA 


miles.  Here  there  was  no  trade  worth  mentioning : we  met 
Hei-lung-chiang  troops  straggling  northwards  all  day. 

From  La-yao-tzu,  which  we  left  at  2.30  a.m.  on  the  30th 
of  January,  the  road  descends  west  by  south  through  broken 
hilly  country  fairly  wooded  with  willows,  oak  and  elm,  but 
showing  fewer  traces  of  cultivation.  Thereafter  it  winds  south- 
wards through  hills,  descends  and  crosses  a stream,  a branch  of 
the  headwaters  of  the  Yi-t’ung,  surmounts  a range  of  hills,  and 
then  descends  west  by  south  to  the  city  of  Yi-t’ung  Chou, 
which  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  stream.  There  is  a wooden 
bridge  over  the  Yi-t’ung,  but  we  crossed  on  the  ice,  and,  with- 
out entering  the  city  walls,  proceeded  to  the  suburbs  in  search 
of  an  inn.  Wherever  we  went  we  were  refused  a resting-place, 
on  the  plea  that  the  inns  were  full  of  passing  soldiers.  In 
addition  to  this,  it  was  market  day,  and  the  streets  were 
crowded  with  people  haggling  over  frozen  fish  and  pheasants, 
wu-la  shoes,  salt,  and  wooden  and  earthenware  utensils  of 
various  kinds.  I sent  one  of  the  escort  to  the  Sub-Prefect 
to  report  our  arrival,  and  request  his  assistance  in  obtaining 
accommodation  for  the  night.  He  soon  returned  and  con- 
ducted us  to  a large  storage  house,  where  we  were  just  as 
comfortable  as  at  an  inn.  The  Sub-Prefect  sent  his  regrets 
that  he  was  unable  to  call  upon  me,  as  he  had  an  engagement 
at  the  execution  ground  that  evening,  and,  just  as  we  were 
settling  down,  the  music  of  the  procession  thither  broke  upon 
our  ear.  Throughout  the  day  we  met  soldiers  and  a battery 
of  field  guns  on  their  way  to  Hei-lung-chiang. 

Yi-t’ung  Chou,  like  T’ieh-ling,  is  a great  storehouse  for 
beans  and  grain,  and  there  is  an  extensive  trade  between  the 
two  cities.  As  we  approached  the  former  we  met  numerous 
empty  carts  returning  to  the  country  districts  whence  it 
draws  its  supplies.  Their  teams  were  mainly  composed  of  oxen. 
The  beans  go  to  T’ieh-ling  for  shipment  to  the  port,  and  the 


JOURNEY  INTO  CENTRAL  MANCHURIA  35 


carts  return  empty,  or  laden  with  salt  from  the  Liao-tung 
Peninsula. 

From  Yi-t’ung  Chou  the  road  ascends  for  twelve  miles  to 
the  village  of  Ta-ku-shan,  which  lies  at  the  base  of  a hill  of  the 
same  name,  about  a thousand  feet  high.  The  lower  part  of 
the  hill,  which  we  left  on  our  right,  was  covered  with  snow. 
Thereafter  the  road  descends  and  again  ascends  over  billowy 
land  till  it  drops  into  a plain,  wherein  lies  the  prosperous 
village  of  Hsiao- ku-shan.  To  the  east  of  the  village  is  a 

pretty  little  temple  perched  on  a wooden  knoll,  with  the 

telegraph  line  immediately  to  the  east  of  it.  A range  of  low 
hills  runs  north  and  south  to  the  east  of  the  plain. 

On  leaving  Hsiao-ku-shan  we  crossed  a stream  and  pro- 
ceeded west  by  south  over  rolling  country,  backed  by  low 

ranges  of  hills.  These  we  surmounted,  and  put  up  for  the 

night  at  Huo-shih-ling-tzu.  A number  of  difficult  places  for 
traffic  presented  themselves  during  the  day,  and  the  carts  and 
their  teams  on  the  snow-clad  ridge  sides  looked  like  a swarm 
of  ants  at  work. 

Descending  from  Huo-shih-ling-tzu  the  road  goes  west  by 
south  through  confused  hills,  and,  passing  Yeh-ho,  at  one  time 
the  capital  of  a Manchu  principality,  enters  a narrow  valley 
bounded  by  low  hills,  which  ends  at  Huang-hua-tien.  Before 
entering  Yeh-ho  we  crossed  the  headwaters  of  the  Eastern 
Liao.  Thereafter  the  valley  widens,  and  the  road  crosses  an 
undulating  stretch  of  country,  backed  by  a range  of  hills,  then 
white  with  snow.  Some  of  the  hills  were  russet  with  scrub-oak. 
Passing  through  the  hills  we  proceeded  south,  crossing  a stream 
which  afterwards  flows  past  K’ai-yiian  Hsien,  and  then  struck 
south-west  to  Wei-yuan-p’u  on  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
Kirin  and  Feng-t’ien  provinces.  The  traffic  along  the  route 
was  enormous,  almost  as  great  as  between  Mai-mai-kai  (Feng- 
hua  Hsien)  and  K’uan-ch’eng-tzu  (Ch’ang-ch’un  Fu).  At 


36 


MANCHURIA 


Wei-yuan-p’u  the  escort  from  Kirin  left  us.  We  occupied  cold, 
miserable  quarters  at  the  frontier  town,  and  kept  the  innkeeper 
and  his  men  busy  stoking  our  Wangs  with  stalks  of  abutilon 
hemp,  which  appeared  to  be  the  ordinary  fuel  of  the  place.  For 
three  days  running  we  had  started  a little  after  2 a.m.,  but  we 
did  not  leave  Wei-yiian-p’u  till  3.45  on  the  morning  of  the  2nd 
of  February.  On  passing  through  the  southern  gate  we  entered 
the  province  of  Feng-t’ien,  and  found  that  hills  no  longer 
barred  our  way.  The  road  lay  over  a level  plain  bounded  by 
hills  on  both  sides  running  north  and  south.  We  struck  the 
T’ieh-hng-K’uan-ch’eng-tzu  road  at  Sun-chia-t’ai,  south  of  K’ai- 
yuan,  where  we  had  spent  the  night  of  the  7th  of  January,  and 
we  were  now  on  well-known  ground.  Four  miles  beyond  we 
were  stopped  by  a block  in  the  road : wheels  were  being  lashed 
to  prevent  carts  slipping  downhill — brakes  being  unknown — 
and  we  did  not  reach  T’ieh-ling  till  5 p.m.  We  determined  to 
push  on,  however,  and  ultimately  put  up  for  the  night  at  the 
village  of  Liao-hai-t’un,  where  we  found  a very  good  but  ex- 
cessively cold  room.  It  was  dark  when  we  arrived,  and  all 
endeavours  to  heat  the  Wang  proved  of  no  avail.  During  the 
day  we  met  numbers  of  Shantung  men  going  north,  bound  for 
Pa-chia-tzu,  which  lies  to  the  west  of  K’uan-ch’eng-tzu,  and 
whole  caravans  of  families  on  their  way  to  settle  in  the  Hai- 
lung-ch’eng  region. 

Forty  miles  still  separated  us  from  Moukden,  and  although 
we  left  Liao-hai-t’un  at  3.15  a.m.  on  the  3rd  of  February,  we 
did  not  enter  the  provincial  capital  till  7.30  p.m.  From  T’ieh- 
ling  we  traversed  a new  and  more  level  road  to  the  west  of  the 
road  we  followed  going  north.  The  country  was  well  wooded 
with  willows  and  elms,  but  on  leaving  the  Kirin  province  we 
left  the  oak-clad  hills  behind  us.  There  was  little  trade  along 
this  new  road.  We  spent  the  4th  of  February  in  Moukden, 
and  next  day  retraced  our  steps  to  Liao-yang,  meeting  on  the 


JOURNEY  INTO  CENTRAL  MANCHURIA  37 


way  several  caravans  laden  with  empty  bean-oil  boxes  and  bales 
of  yarn  for  the  capital.  They  were  bound  for  the  far  interior, 
beyond  the  Palisade.  Carts  with  willow  twigs  from  Niu-chuang, 
intended  for  the  manufacture  of  oil  and  samshu  baskets,  and 
with  salt  from  the  port,  were  also  going  north.  The  evapora- 
tion of  salt  from  sea- water  under  Government  license  is  a great 
industry  in  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula,  which  I have  described  in 
another  chapter,  and  the  product  is  brought  to  the  port  by 
junk  in  the  open  season  and  by  cart  in  winter.  From  New- 
ell wang  it  is  earned  into  the  interior  by  the  boats  which  bring 
down  the  beans  and  by  carts  when  the  river  is  closed  by  ice. 
Leaving  Liao-yang  at  3 a.m.  on  the  6th,  we  followed  the  road 
by  which  we  had  come  as  far  as  Sha-ho-tzu,  a distance  of  ten 
miles,  and  instead  of  continuing  towards  Hai-ch’eng  struck  west 
by  south  for  the  inland  town  of  Niu-chuang,  one  of  the  battle- 
fields during  the  war.  W e were  unable  to  make  that  place  the 
same  day,  however,  for  one  of  the  mules  of  my  companion’s 
team,  which  had  been  showing  signs  of  lameness  for  a day  or 
two,  broke  down,  and,  as  its  owner  was  unwilling  to  leave  it  be- 
hind when  we  were  so  near  the  port,  we  made  but  slow  progress. 
An-shan  (“  Saddle  Hill  ”)  was  prominent  on  our  left  during 
the  early  part  of  the  day,  and  the  road  lay  over  a country 
so  flat  as  to  be  painfully  monotonous.  There  was  very  consider- 
able traffic,  for  we  were  now  on  the  great  highway  from  the  port 
to  Moukden  : caravans  of  empty  bean-oil  and  samshu  baskets, 
salt,  paper  and  cotton  goods  in  bales  going  north,  and  abutilon 
hemp  accompanying  us  to  the  port.  The  village  of  Ku-ch’eng- 
tzu,  seven  miles  from  Niu-chuang,  was  our  resting-place  on  the 
6th,  and  at  2 a.m.  on  the  7th  we  started  on  our  final  stage. 
We  passed  through  Niu-chuang  long  before  daylight,  and  I 
regret  to  say  that  we  saw  nothing  of  the  town  which  has  given 
its  name  to  the  port.  We  entered  and  left  it  by  gates  ; but  my 
writer,  who  left  us  at  Moukden,  in  his  hurry  to  get  home  to 


38 


MANCHURIA 


make  preparations  for  the  China  New  Year,  and  passed  through 
it  during  daylight,  afterwards  informed  me  that  it  has  not  yet 
recovered  from  the  damage  which  it  sustained  during  the  war. 
It  was  here  that  several  hundred  Chinese  troops  were  surrounded 
by  the  Japanese,  and,  after  a desperate  struggle,  obliged  to  sur- 
render, many  of  the  younger  officers  cutting  their  own  throats 
rather  than  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  A Japanese 
officer,  who  was  engaged  in  the  fight,  and  came  to  see  me  two 
days  after,  was  my  informant.  We  met  the  usual  number  of 
caravans  on  the  same  level  flat,  and  rode  into  the  port  of 
Newchwang  at  2.30  p.m.,  after  an  absence  of  five  weeks  and  two 
days. 


BIRTHDAY  OF  THE  EMPEROR  OF  JAPAN 


CELEBRATION  AT  NEWCHWANG,  1895 


CHAPTER  II 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  MANCHURIA 

ON  the  third  day  of  August,  1894,  war  was  formally 
declared  between  China  and  Japan  in  consequence  of 
disputes  regarding  the  kingdom  of  Corea,  and  the  battle 
of  Phyonyang,  on  the  15th  of  September,  and  the  naval  en- 
gagement of  Hai-yang,  two  days  later,  in  both  of  which  the 
Japanese  military  and  naval  forces  were  victorious,  opened  the 
way  to  the  Japanese  invasion  of  Manchuria  by  land  and  sea. 
Following  up  their  successes  against  the  Chinese  troops  in  Corea 
the  Japanese  crossed  the  Ya-lu,  the  boundary  of  Corea  and 
Manchuria,  and  occupied  the  city  of  Feng-huang  T’ing — usually 
called  Feng-huang-ch’eng — on  the  30th.  From  Feng-huang 
T’ing  they  pushed  on  to  Hsiu-yen  Chou  and  Hai-ch’eng  Hsien, 
which  were  taken  on  the  18th  November  and  13th  December  re- 
spectively. Some  time  was  occupied  in  entrenching  themselves 
at  Hai-ch’eng  and  in  repelling  four  different  attempts  made 
by  the  Chinese  to  retake  the  city,  and  it  was  not  till  the  4th 
of  March,  1895,  that  the  most  desperate  struggle  in  Manchuria 
was  decided,  and  the  inland  town  of  Niu-chuang  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Japanese.  These  were  the  achievements  of  the 
First  Army  Corps.  In  the  early  days  of  November,  1894,  the 
Second  Army  Corps  landed  at  P’i-tzu-wo  and  Hua-yiian-k’ou, 
on  the  east  coast  of  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula,  north  of  Ta- 
lien-wan  Bay,  and  took  Chin-chou  T’ing  on  the  6th,  while 
next  day  the  Japanese  fleet  occupied  Ta-lien-wan  Bay  itself, 
the  Chinese  escaping  to  Port  Arthur,  which  in  turn  was 

(39) 


40 


MANCHURIA 


successfully  assaulted  and  occupied  on  the  21st  of  November. 
On  the  10th  of  January,  1895,  two  columns  of  the  Second  Army 
Corps  took  the  city  of  Kai-p’ing  Hsien,  and  the  port  of 
Newchwang  (Ying-kow)  was  occupied  on  the  6th  of  March, 
the  Chinese,  with  the  exception  of  the  troops  in  the  forts  who 
fled  overnight  across  the  frozen  Liao,  having  evacuated  the 
latter  place  the  previous  day  and  fallen  back  on  T’ien-chuang- 
Fai.  The  First  and  Second  Japanese  Army  Corps  now  joined 
hands,  and  on  the  9th  of  March,  three  days  after  the  occupation 
of  the  port  by  the  First  Division  of  the  Second  Army,  three 
divisions  of  the  combined  armies  dealt  a final  blow  at  the 
Chinese  forces  at  the  town  of  T’ien-chuang-t’ai,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Liao,  thirteen  miles  north  of  Newchwang,  where 
the  Chinese  made  their  last  stand  in  Manchuria.  After  the 
battle  the  Chinese  retreated  westwards,  and  the  Japanese, 
leaving  a few  scouts  to  watch  the  movements  of  their  beaten 
foe,  withdrew  to  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  Japan  had  now 
overrun  and  occupied  the  whole  of  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula, 
and  when  the  day  of  reckoning  arrived  it  formed  part  of  the 
territorial  concessions  by  China.  Article  II.  of  the  Treaty 
of  Peace  between  China  and  Japan,  signed  at  Shimonoseki  on 
the  17th  of  April,  1895,  contains  the  following : “ China  cedes 
to  Japan  in  perpetuity  and  full  sovereignty  the  following 
territories,  together  with  all  fortifications,  arsenals  and  public 
property  thereon : — 

“(a)  The  southern  portion  of  the  province  of  Feng-t’ien 
within  the  following  boundaries : — 

“ The  line  of  demarcation  begins  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Ya-lu,  and  ascends  that  stream  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  An- 
ping ; from  thence  the  line  runs  to  Feng-huang ; from  thence  to 
Hai-ch’eng ; from  thence  to  Ying-kow  (the  port  of  Newchwang), 
forming  a line  which  describes  the  southern  portion  of  the 
territory.  The  places  above  named  are  included  in  the  ceded 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  MANCHURIA  41 


territory.  When  the  line  reaches  the  river  Liao  at  Ying-kow 
it  follows  the  course  of  that  stream  to  its  mouth,  where  it 
terminates.  The  mid-channel  of  the  river  Liao  shall  be  taken 
as  the  line  of  demarcation. 

“This  cession  also  includes  all  islands  appertaining  or  be- 
longing to  the  province  of  Feng-t’ien  situated  in  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  Bay  of  Liao-tung  and  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  Yellow  Sea.” 

The  ratifications  of  this  treaty  were  exchanged  at  Chefoo 
on  the  8th  of  May,  1895  ; but,  previous  to  the  exchange,  Russia, 
France  and  Germany  made  representations  to  Japan,  and  she 
was  induced  to  relinquish  for  a consideration  the  fruits  of  her 
victory.  The  following  Japanese  proclamation  was  issued  on 
the  10th  of  May,  two  days  after  the  exchange  of  the  ratifica- 
tions : — 

“We  recently,  at  the  request  of  the  Emperor  of  China, 
appointed  Plenipotentiaries  for  the  purpose  of  conferring  with 
the  Ambassadors  sent  by  China  and  of  concluding  with  them 
a Treaty  of  Peace  between  the  two  Empires.  Since  then  the 
Governments  of  the  two  Empires  of  Russia  and  Germany  and 
of  the  French  Republic,  considering  that  the  permanent  posses- 
sion of  the  ceded  districts  of  the  Feng-t’ien  Peninsula  by  the 
Empire  of  Japan  would  be  detrimental  to  the  lasting  peace  of 
the  Orient,  have  united  in  a simultaneous  recommendation  to 
our  Government  to  refrain  from  holding  these  districts  per- 
manently. 

“ Earnestly  desirous  as  we  always  are  for  the  maintenance 
of  peace,  nevertheless  we  were  forced  to  commence  hostilities 
against  China  for  no  other  reason  than  our  sincere  desire  to 
secure  for  the  Orient  an  enduring  peace.  The  Governments 
of  the  three  Powers  are,  in  offering  their  friendlv  recommenda- 
tion, similarly  actuated  by  the  same  desire,  and  we,  out  of  our 
regard  for  peace,  do  not  hesitate  to  accept  their  advice.  More- 


42 


MANCHURIA 


over,  it  is  not  our  wish  to  cause  suffering  to  our  people,  or 
to  impede  the  progress  of  the  national  destiny  by  embroiling 
the  Empire  in  new  complications,  and  thereby  imperilling  the 
situation  and  retarding  the  restoration  of  peace. 

“ China  has  already  shown,  by  the  conclusion  of  the  Treaty 
of  Peace,  the  sincerity  of  her  repentance  for  her  breach  of  faith 
with  us,  and  has  made  manifest  to  the  world  our  reasons  and 
the  object  we  had  in  waging  war  with  that  Empire. 

“ Under  these  circumstances  we  do  not  consider  that  the 
honour  and  dignity  of  the  Empire  will  be  compromised  by 
resorting  to  magnanimous  measures  and  by  taking  into  con- 
sideration the  general  situation  of  affairs. 

“ We  have  therefore  accepted  the  advice  of  the  friendly 
Powers,  and  have  commanded  our  Government  to  reply  to  the 
Governments  of  the  three  Powers  to  that  effect. 

“ We  have  specially  commanded  our  Government  to  nego- 
tiate with  the  Chinese  Government  respecting  all  arrangements 
for  the  return  of  the  peninsular  districts.  The  exchange  of  the 
ratifications  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace  has  now  been  concluded, 
the  friendly  relations  between  the  two  Empires  have  been 
restored,  and  cordial  relations  with  all  other  Powers  have  been 
strengthened. 

“ We  therefore  command  all  our  subjects  to  respect  our 
will,  to  take  into  careful  consideration  the  general  situation, 
to  be  circumspect  in  all  things,  to  avoid  erroneous  tendencies, 
and  not  to  impair  or  thwart  the  high  aspirations  of  our  Empire.1,1 

In  accordance  with  the  above  proclamation  a Convention 
between  China  and  Japan  for  the  retrocession  of  Liao-tung 
(Feng-Cien  Province)  was  signed  at  Peking  on  the  8th  Novem- 
ber, 1895,  just  six  months  after  the  exchange  at  Chefoo  of  the 
ratifications  of  the  Treaty  of  Shimonoseki.  By  Article  I.  of 
this  Convention  all  the  territory  occupied  by  Japan  in  Man- 
churia, as  set  forth  in  Article  II.  of  the  Shimonoseki  Treaty, 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  MANCHURIA  43 


was  retroceded  to  China ; Article  II.  states  : “ As  compensa- 
tion for  the  retrocession  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  province 
of  Feng-t’ien,  the  Chinese  Government  engage  to  pay  to  the 
Japanese  Government  30,000,000  Kuping  taels  on  or  before 
the  16th  day  of  the  11th  month  of  the  28th  year  of  Meiji, 
corresponding  to  the  30th  day  of  the  9th  month  of  the  21st 
year  of  Kuang  Hsii  (16th  November,  1895)  ” ; and  Article  III. 
provides  that  “ Within  three  months  from  the  day  on  which 
China  shall  have  paid  to  Japan  the  compensatory  indemnity  of 
30,000,000  Kuping  taels  provided  for  in  Article  II.  of  this 
Convention  the  retroceded  territory  shall  be  completely  evacu- 
ated by  the  Japanese  forces  The  indemnity  was  duly  paid, 
and  on  30th  November  Japan  commenced  the  evacuation  of 
Manchuria,  which  was  completed  in  the  following  month. 

In  the  autumn  of  1896  some  surprise  was  caused  in  China 
by  the  publication  in  the  Shanghai  English  press  of  a transla- 
tion of  what  purported  to  be  a Convention  (known  as  the 
Cassini  Convention)  between  Russia  and  China  for  the  con- 
struction of  a railway  through  Manchuria  to  connect  the 
Trans-Baikal  and  Southern  Ussuri  sections  of  the  Siberian 
Railway,  and  for  the  leasing  to  Russia  of  certain  ports  in 
Manchuria  and  China.  As  the  conclusion  of  this  Conven- 
tion has  been  officially  denied  I will  not  reproduce  it  here; 
but  in  September,  1896,  an  Agreement  was  entered  into  be- 
tween the  Chinese  Government  and  the  Russo-Chinese  Bank 
whereby,  inter  alia , the  latter  undertook  to  form  a company, 
to  be  called  the  Chinese  Eastern  Railway  Company,  to  con- 
struct a railway  through  Manchuria  from  the  town  of  Chita, 
in  the  Trans-Baikal  Province,  to  a point  in  the  Southern 
Ussuri  Railway.  The  general  terms  of  the  agreement  are 
that  the  shareholders  of  the  said  company  shall  be  Russians 
and  Chinese  only ; that  the  gauge  shall  be  the  Russian  gauge 
of  five  feet ; that  work  shall  be  begun  within  twelve  months 


44 


MANCHURIA 


from  the  issue  of  an  Imperial  Decree  giving  assent  to  the 
agreement ; that  the  railway  shall  be  completed  in  six  years 
from  the  date  on  which  the  land  required  for  the  line  is  handed 
over  to  the  control  of  the  company ; that  on  the  expiration  of 
eighty  years  from  the  completion  of  the  line  and  the  inaugura- 
tion of  the  railway  as  a running  concern  the  railway  and  all 
railway  property  shall  pass,  without  payment,  to  the  Chinese 
Government,  who  shall  not  be  responsible  for  any  losses  which 
the  company  may  have  sustained  during  that  period ; and  that 
the  Chinese  Government  have  the  right,  at  the  expiration  of 
thirty-six  years  from  the  inauguration  of  the  railway  as  a going 
concern,  to  take  over  the  railway  on  due  payment,  such  pay- 
ment to  include  the  actual  cost  thereof,  together  with  all  debts 
and  interest  thereon,  but  any  surplus,  after  payment  to  share- 
holders, shall  be  added  to  capital  account  and  shall  be  deducted 
from  the  cost  of  the  line  to  be  paid  by  the  Chinese  Government. 

In  accordance  with  the  above  agreement  the  first  sod  of 
the  Manchurian  Railway  was  cut,  with  great  ceremony,  on  the 
28th  of  August,  1897,  at  a point  on  the  eastern  frontier  of 
Kirin  and  the  Primorsk.  Chinese,  Russian  and  other  officials 
were  present,  and  telegrams  announcing  the  inauguration  of 
the  railway  were  despatched  to  China  and  Russia.  Work  was 
now  begun  on  the  eastern  and  north-western  frontiers  of  Man- 
churia, where  lines  110  and  324 \ versts  respectively  had  to  be 
built  to  reach  the  frontiers  of  Kirin  and  Hei-lung-chiang  and 
connect  with  the  Southern  Ussuri  and  Trans-Baikal  sections  of 
the  Siberian  Railway  at  Nikolsk  and  Kaidalovo  (not  Chita,  as 
originally  intended),  and  engineers  were  sent  into  Manchuria 
to  find  the  easiest  route  across  that  country.  It  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  Vladivostock,  which  would  have  been  the  eastern 
terminus  of  the  Siberian  Railway  had  Russia’s  railway  pro- 
gramme been  limited  to  the  above,  is  closed  by  ice  for  several 
months  of  the  year,  and  for  this  and  other  reasons,  which  need 


CUTTING  THE  FIRST  SOD  OF  THE  TRANS-MANCHURIAN  RAILWAY,  AUGUST  28,  ii 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  MANCHURIA  45 


not  be  specified  here,  the  following  Agreement  between  China 
and  Russia  was  concluded  on  the  27th  of  March,  1898  : — 

“ His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  China,  on  the  sixth  day  of 
the  third  moon  of  the  twenty-fourth  year  of  Kuang  Hsii  (27th 
March,  1898),  appointed  the  Grand  Secretary,  Li  Hung-chang, 
and  the  Senior  Vice-President  of  the  Board  of  Revenue,  Chang- 
Yin-huan,  as  Plenipotentiaries  to  arrange  with  M.  PavlofF, 
Charge  d’ Affaires  and  Plenipotentiary  for  Russia,  all  matters 
connected  with  the  leasing  and  use  by  Russia  of  Port  Arthur 
and  Ta-lien-wan. 

“ The  Treaty  arranged  between  them  in  this  condition  is  as 
follows : — 

“ Article  I. — It  being  necessary  for  the  due  protection  of 
her  navy  in  the  waters  of  North  China  that  Russia  should 
possess  a station  she  can  defend,  the  Emperor  of  China  agrees 
to  lease  to  Russia  Port  Arthur  and  Ta-lien-wan,  together  with 
the  adjacent  seas,  but  on  the  understanding  that  such  lease 
shall  not  prejudice  China’s  sovereignty  over  this  territory. 

“ Article  II. — The  limits  of  the  territory  thus  leased,  for 
the  reasons  above  stated,  as  well  as  the  extent  of  territory 
north  of  Ta-lien-wan  necessary  for  the  defence  of  that  now 
leased,  and  wrhat  shall  be  allowed  to  be  leased,  shall  be  strictly 
defined,  and  all  details  necessary  to  the  carrying  out  of  this 
Treaty  be  arranged  at  St.  Petersburg  by  Hsii  Ta-jen  (the 
Chinese  Minister  to  Russia)  as  soon  as  possible  after  the 
signature  of  the  present  treaty,  and  embodied  in  a separate 
treaty.  Once  these  limits  have  been  determined,  all  land  held 
by  Chinese  within  such  limits,  as  well  as  the  adjacent  waters, 
shall  be  held  by  Russia  alone  on  lease. 

“Article  III. — The  duration  of  the  lease  shall  be  twenty-five 
years  from  the  day  this  treaty  is  signed,  but  may  be  extended 
by  mutual  agreement  between  Russia  and  China. 

“Article  IV. — The  control  of  all  military  forces  in  the  territory 


46 


MANCHURIA 


leased  by  Russia,  and  of  all  naval  forces  in  the  adjacent  seas,  as 
well  as  of  the  civil  officials  in  it,  shall  be  vested  in  one  high 
Russian  official,  who  shall,  however,  be  designated  by  some  title 
other  than  Governor-General  (Tsung-tu)  or  Governor  (Hsiin-fu). 
All  Chinese  military  forces  shall,  without  exception,  be  with- 
drawn from  the  territory,  but  it  shall  remain  optional  with  the 
ordinary  Chinese  inhabitants  either  to  remain  or  to  go,  and  no 
coercion  shall  be  used  towards  them  in  this  matter.  Should 
they  remain,  any  Chinese  charged  with  a criminal  offence  shall 
be  handed  over  to  the  nearest  Chinese  official  to  be  dealt  with 
according  to  Article  VIII.  of  the  Russo-Chinese  treaty  of  I860.1 

“Article  V. — To  the  north  of  the  territory  leased  shall  be 
a zone,  the  extent  of  which  shall  be  arranged  at  St.  Petersburg 
between  Hsii  Ta-jen  and  the  Russian  Foreign  Office.  Jurisdiction 
over  this  zone  shall  be  vested  in  China,  but  China  may  not 
quarter  troops  in  it  except  with  the  previous  consent  of  Russia. 

“Article  VI. — The  two  nations  agree  that  Port  Arthur 
shall  be  a naval  port  for  the  sole  use  of  Russian  and  Chinese 
men-of-war,  and  be  considered  as  an  unopened  port  so  far  as 
the  naval  and  mercantile  vessels  of  other  nations  are  concerned. 
As  regards  Ta-lien-wan,  one  portion  of  the  harbour  shall  be 
reserved  exclusively  for  Russian  and  Chinese  men-of-war,  just 
like  Port  Arthur,  but  the  remainder  shall  be  a commercial  port 
freely  open  to  the  merchant  vessels  of  all  countries. 


1 Dans  les  cas  de  crimes  graves,  tels  que  meurtre,  brigandage  avec  de 
graves  blessures  attentant  contre  la  vie,  incendie  premedite,  etc.,  apres  enquete, 
si  le  coupable  est  Russe,  il  est  envoye  en  Russie  pour  etre  traite  selon  les  lois 
de  son  pays,  et  s’il  est  Chinois,  sa  punition  lui  est  inflig£e  par  l’autorite  du  lieu 
ou  le  crime  a ete  commis,  ou  bien,  si  les  lois  de  l’Etat  l’exigent,  le  coupable  est 
envoye  dans  une  autre  ville  ou  une  autre  province  pour  y recevoir  son  chatiment. 

En  cas  de  crime,  quelle  qu’en  soit  la  gravite,  le  Consul  et  le  chef  local  ne 
peuvent  prendre  les  mesures  necessaires  que  relativement  au  coupable  appartenant 
a leur  pays,  et  ni  l’un  ni  l’autre  n’a  le  droit  d’incarcerer  ni  de  juger  separement 
et  encore  moins  de  ch&tier  un  individu  non-sujet  de  son  Gouvernement. 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  MANCHURIA  47 


44  Article  VII. — Port  Arthur  and  Ta-lien-wan  are  the  points 
in  the  territory  leased  most  important  for  Russian  military 
purposes.  Russia  shall,  therefore,  be  at  liberty  to  erect  at  her 
own  expense  forts  and  build  barracks  and  provide  defences  at 
such  places  as  she  desires. 

44  Article  VIII. — China  agrees  that  the  procedure  sanc- 
tioned in  1896  regarding  the  construction  of  railroads  by  the 
Chinese  Eastern  Railway  Company  shall,  from  the  date  of  the 
signature  of  this  treaty,  be  extended  so  as  to  include  the  con- 
struction of  a branch  line  to  Ta-lien-wan,  or,  if  necessary,  in 
view  of  the  interests  involved,  of  a branch  line  to  the  most 
suitable  point  on  the  coast  between  Newchwang  and  the  Ya-lu 
River.1  Further,  the  agreement  entered  into  in  September, 
1896,  between  the  Chinese  Government  and  the  Russo-Chinese 
Bank  shall  apply  with  equal  strength  to  this  branch  line.  The 
direction  of  this  branch  line  and  the  places  it  shall  touch  shall 
be  arranged  between  Hsu  Ta-jen  and  the  Board  of  the  Eastern 
Railroads.  The  construction  of  this  line  shall  never,  however, 
be  made  a ground  for  encroaching  on  the  sovereignty  or  integrity 
of  China. 

44  Article  IX. — This  treaty  shall  take  full  force  and  effect 
from  the  date  it  is  signed,  but  the  ratifications  shall  be  ex- 
changed at  St.  Petersburg.” 

On  the  28th  of  March,  1898,  the  day  following  the  signature 
of  the  above  Convention,  the  Russians  occupied  Port  Arthur, 
the  leased  territory  was  subsequently  defined  by  a line  drawn 
from  P’u-la-tien,  at  the  head  of  an  inlet  on  the  west  coast,  to 
P’i-tzu-wo,  a village  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula, 
and  the  neutral  zone  was  determined  by  a line  drawn  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Kai-chow  River  to  the  south  of  the  district  city 

1 By  a subsequent  agreement  this  “ suitable  point  ” was  decided  to  be 
Ta-lien-wan  and  Port  Arthur,  and  no  other,  and  the  city  of  Chin-chou  T’ing 
was  excluded  from  Russian  jurisdiction. 


48 


MANCHURIA 


of  Kai-p’ing  Hsien  on  the  west  coast  to  a point  on  the  Ta-yang 
River  and  down  its  right  bank  to  the  sea  and  including  the 
village  of  Ta-ku-shan  on  the  east  coast. 

In  the  spring  of  1898,  when  the  Liao  River  opened,  Russian 
engineers  arrived  at  the  port  of  Newchwang  and  selected  at  a 
spot  about  three  miles  higher  up  the  river  and  on  the  same 
bank  as  the  port  a site  for  the  terminus  of  a branch  line,  to 
act  as  a feeder  for  the  line  to  be  constructed  to  connect  Port 
Arthur  and  Ta-lien-wan  with  the  Trans-Manchurian  Railway. 
This  branch  line,  which  goes  east  to  Ta-shih-ch’iao,  is  about 
seventeen  miles  in  length,  and  on  its  completion  in  1899  the 
main  line  was  commenced  southwards  to  Port  Arthur  and 
northwards  towards  Moukden.  The  port  of  Newchwang  was 
selected  as  a starting-point  because  a number  of  rock  cuttings 
and  a considerable  amount  of  temporary  bridging  had  to  be 
carried  out  in  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula,  so  that  railway  materials 
could  not  be  pushed  northwards  from  Port  Arthur  or  Ta-lien- 
wan  until  they  were  completed.  While,  therefore,  cutting  and 
bridging  were  proceeding  in  the  south,  Chinese  labourers  from 
the  provinces  of  Chihli  and  Shantung  were  busy  building  the 
embankments  on  the  plain  to  the  north  and  south  of  Ta-shih- 
ch’iao,  sleepers  and  rails  from  Japan  and  Russia  respectively 
were  brought  in  by  steamers  of  various  nationalities,  and 
dragged  in  trolleys  along  the  branch  line  by  ponies  and  oxen 
to  Ta-shih-ch’iao  whence  they  were  distributed  and  laid  under 
Russian  supervision,  and  locomotives  from  the  Baldwin  Engineer- 
ing Works,  Philadelphia,  were  being  landed  and  put  together  by 
Chinese  artisans  from  Shanghai,  Canton  and  Hong-Kong  under 
American  supervision.  It  was  not  till  the  6th  of  May,  1899,  that 
the  first  small  locomotive  for  construction  purposes  made  a trial 
trip  in  the  direction  of  Ta-shih-ch’iao  and  that  steam-power 
was  available  along  the  branch  feeding  line.  Faster  progress 
was  now  made,  and  on  the  23rd  of  October,  1899,  steam 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  MANCHURIA  49 


communication  was  established  between  Ta-lien-wan  and  the 
port  of  Newchwang.  Later,  the  line  from  Port  Arthur  to 
Ta-fang-shen,  where  the  track  goes  eastwards  to  Ta-lien-wan, 
was  completed,  and  when  the  writer  left  Newchwang  in  April, 
1900,  that  port  was  connected  with  Port  Arthur  and  Ta-lien- 
wan  in  the  south  and  with  the  city  of  T’ieh-ling,  about  forty 
miles  to  the  north  of  Moukden,  in  the  north.  A description 
of  the  line  from  Newchwang  to  Port  Arthur  will  be  found  in 
Chapter  III.  From  Ta-shih-ch’iao  northwards  the  line  passes 
immediately  to  the  west  of  Hai-ch’eng  and  Liao-yang,  makes 
a considerable  curve  to  the  west  of  Moukden  to  avoid  the 
imperial  tombs  of  the  ancestors  of  the  present  Manchu  Dynasty, 
and  then  goes  north  to  T’ieh-ling,  which  is  the  northern  terminus 
of  the  southern  section  of  the  line  from  Port  Arthur  to  the 
Trans-Manchurian  Railway  at  Harbin,  near  the  right  bank  of 
the  Sungari  in  the  province  of  Kirin.  This  line  I shall  call  the 
Central  Manchurian  Railway  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Trans- 
Manchurian  line  from  Vladivostock  to  Kaidalovo  on  the  Trans- 
Baikal  section  of  the  Siberian  Railway.  I have  said  that  the 
southern  section  of  the  Central  Manchurian  Railway  was  com- 
pleted as  far  as  T’ieh-ling  in  April,  1900 ; but  in  many  places 
the  line  is  only  temporary,  and  damage  is  constantly  being  done 
to  the  provisional  wooden  bridges  spanning  rivers  like  the  Hai- 
ch’eng,  T’ai-tzii  and  Hun  Ho,  which  rise  during  heavy  rains  and 
inundate  the  surrounding  country.  In  connection  with  the 
southern  section  of  the  Central  Manchurian  Railway  coal  mines 
are  worked  to  the  east  of  the  line  at  Lu-sheng,  some  three  miles 
to  the  east  of  Wa-fang-tien  in  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula,  where 
the  recent  daily  output  has  averaged  150  tons,  and  shafts  have 
been  sunk  at  Mo-ch’i-shan  and  T’zu-erh-shan,  to  the  north-east 
of  the  city  of  Liao-yang,  but  no  coal  had  been  extracted  up  to 
April,  owing  to  the  flooding  of  the  shafts.  The  coal  from  the 

former  mines  is  dirty  and  requires  cleaning  and  plant  has  been 

4 


50 


MANCHURIA 


ordered  for  the  purpose,  while  the  latter  are  situated  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  valuable  and  excellent  deposits.  Branch  lines 
are  in  course  of  construction  to  both  mines.  From  T"ieh- 
ling  the  northern  section  of  the  Central  Manchurian  Railway 
will  pass  to  the  east  of  CKang-t’u  Fu  and  Feng-hua  Hsien,  to 
the  west  and  north  of  Cli’ang-ch’un  Fu  or  K’uan-ch’eng-tzii,  and 
then  go  north  by  east  to  Harbin,  passing  about  eight  and  a 
half  miles  to  the  west  of  Shuang-ch’eng  T’ing.  The  whole  of 
the  embankment  on  this  northern  section  has  been  constructed, 
and  rails  have  been  laid  for  some  distance  south  of  Harbin, 
whence  it  has  been  fed. 

I have  stated  above  that  the  first  sod  of  the  Trans-Man- 
churian Railway  was  cut  on  the  28th  of  August,  1897,  and  in 
the  spring  of  the  following  year  Russian  engineers  ascended  the 
Amur  and  Sungari  above  the  city  of  Hu-lan  T'ing,  and,  land- 
ing on  the  right  bank  of  the  latter  river,  fixed  upon  a spot 
about  seven  miles  inland  for  the  junction  of  the  Trans-Man- 
churian and  Central  Manchurian  Railways.  There  was  one 
solitary  house — a Chinese  distillery — on  the  spot  at  the  time  ; 
but  at  the  present  moment  Ha-erh-pin,  Ha-mo,  or  Harbin  as 
it  is  now  generally  called,  is  a large  town  of  several  thousand 
inhabitants,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  Russians  connected 
with,  and  for  the  protection  of,  the  Trans-Manchurian  Railway. 
Just  as  the  port  of  Newchwang  was  selected  as  a suitable 
place  whence  the  Central  Manchurian  Railway  could  be  pushed 
north  and  south  pending  the  completion  of  the  necessary  rock 
cuttings  in  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula,  so  Harbin  was  selected 
as  the  starting-point  of  the  Trans-Manchurian  Railway  in 
Manchuria,  because  the  east  of  the  province  of  Kirin  bordering 
on  the  Primorsk  is  exceedingly  mountainous  and  presents  serious 
obstacles  to  the  railway  engineer.  To  the  west,  again,  and  in 
the  Hei-lung-chiang  province,  the  Hsing-an  range  of  mountains 
has  to  be  crossed,  and  these  two  difficulties  compelled  access 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  MANCHURIA  51 


to  be  opened  up  with  Central  Manchuria  by  the  Sungari  and 
Harbin.  The  total  length  of  the  Trans-Manchurian  Railway 
from  Nikolsk,  where  it  joins  the  Vladivostock-Habarovsk  line,  to 
Kaidalovo,  where  it  joins  the  Trans-Baikal  line,  is  about  1,580 
versts,  and  if  we  add  to  this  the  102  versts  from  Vladivostock  to 
Nikolsk  we  have  a total  from  Vladivostock  to  Kaidalovo  of  about 
1,682  versts.  From  Harbin  as  a centre  the  Trans-Manchurian 
line  is  being  pushed  south-east  and  north-west,  and  at  the  end 
of  April  it  had  been  constructed  160  versts  on  either  side  of  the 
junction,  to  the  south-east  as  far  as  Yi-mien-p’o,  where  a blank 
of  nearly  200  versts  separated  it  from  the  railhead  of  the  line 
which  has  been  built  westwards  from  Nikolsk  for  a distance  of 
140  versts,  only  ninety-one  of  which  were  open  for  passenger 
traffic  when  I passed  over  the  Southern  Ussuri  Railway  on  the 
14th  of  May,  1900,  and  north-west  towards  the  valley  of  the 
River  Nonni,  a tributary  of  the  Sungari.  As  the  valley  of  the 
Nonni  is  liable  to  inundation,  special  care  is  being  taken  in 
the  construction  of  the  line  at  this  point,  and  pending  the 
tunneling  of  the  Greater  Hsing-an  Mountains  further  west, 
which  will  occupy  at  least  a couple  of  years,  a temporary  passage 
across  the  range  is  said  to  have  been  found.  From  the  Hsing-an 
Mountains  the  line  will  go  west,  passing  to  the  south  of  Khailar 
or  Hu-lun-pei-Vh,  and  cross  the  Manchurian-Trans-Raikal 
frontier  at  Nagadan,  and  west  across  the  Borza,  Turga,  Onon, 
Khila,  Aga  and  Ingoda  Rivers  to  Kaidalovo.  The  construction 
of  the  Kaidalovo-Manchurian  frontier  railway  was  begun  in 
1897.  The  total  length  of  the  bridging  on  the  above  rivers 
amounts  to  2,660  feet,  and  the  cost  of  this  section,  including 
permanent  way,  rolling  stock  and  bridging  is  placed  at 
28,323,158  roubles  for  a distance  of  324  versts.  The  cost  of 
the  Nikolsk-Manchurian  line,  110  versts  in  length,  is  similarly 
placed  at  9,033,987  roubles ; but  I am  unable  to  give  an 
estimate  of  the  cost  of  construction  within  Manchuria  itself. 


52 


MANCHURIA 


By  Article  VI.  of  the  Russo-Chinese  Agreement,  quoted 
above,  a part  of  Ta-lien-wan  Bay  is  to  be  set  apart  as  a free 
commercial  port.  The  site  of  the  new  town,  named  Dalny,  has 
been  fixed  on  the  south  shore  of  the  bay,  and  a breakwater  to 
shelter  shipping  from  eastern  gales  and  other  works  are  now 
being  built  and  carried  out  to  render  the  new  harbour  safe  and 
commodious.  Some  account  of  what  is  being  done  in  regard 
to  the  town  itself  will  be  found  in  the  next  chapter.  The 
distance  from  Dalny  to  Harbin  by  the  Central  Manchurian 
Railway  is  about  840  versts,  making  a total  of  about  1,959 
versts  from  Dalny  to  Kaidalovo  against  about  1,682  versts 
from  Vladivostock  to  Kaidalovo  by  way  of  Nikolsk  and 
Harbin. 

But  there  is  another  railway  in  Manchuria.  When  the 
writer  took  charge  of  His  Majesty’s  Consulate  in  November, 
1894,  the  Imperial  Railways  of  North  China  had  already  reached 
the  Great  Wall,  and  a railway  embankment  had  been  built  for 
some  distance  north  of  Shan-hai-kuan,  which  lies  immediately  to 
the  south  of  the  Wall.  At  that  time  it  was  intended  to  extend 
the  line  to  Moukden  by  way  of  Chin-chou  Fu,  and  even  the 
city  of  Kirin  was  talked  of  as  the  objective.  Funds,  however, 
were  wanting,  and  on  occasions  sums  voted  for  the  railway  were 
withdrawn  and  appropriated  to  other  purposes.  Under  these 
conditions  progress  was  very  slow,  and,  at  the  end  of  1896, 
although  the  embankment  was  completed  as  far  as  the  Ta-ling 
River,  about  twenty  miles  north-east  of  Chin-chou,  only  forty 
miles  of  rails  were  laid  to  the  north  of  the  Great  Wall,  as  far  as 
a place  called  Chung-hou-so.  In  1898  some  bridging  had  been 
done  to  the  north  of  Chung-hou-so  ; but  it  became  evident  that 
if  the  proposed  line  were  ever  to  be  completed  funds  must  be 
found  for  the  purpose  from  more  stable  sources,  and  on  the  7th 
of  June,  1898,  the  following  Preliminary  Agreement  was  made 
between  the  Chinese  Administrator- General  of  Railways  within 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  MANCHURIA  53 


and  without  the  Shan-hai-kuan  boundary  and  the  Hong-Kong 
and  Shanghai  Banking  Corporation : — 

“ This  is  a Preliminary  Agreement  made  between  His 
Excellency  Hu,  Governor  of  Pekin  and  Administrator-General 
of  the  Imperial  Railways  of  North  China  within  and  without 
the  Great  Wall,  hereinafter  called  the  Administrator-General, 
of  the  one  part,  and  the  Hong-Kong  and  Shanghai  Banking 
Corporation  representing  a British  Syndicate  hereinafter  called 
the  Syndicate,  of  the  other  part. 

“1.  The  Syndicate  is  hereby  authorised  by  the  Admin- 
istrator-General to  make  arrangements  to  float  and  issue, 
on  behalf  of  the  Railway  Administration,  on  the  best  terms 
obtainable  on  the  market,  a sterling  loan  for  the  equivalent 
of  about  16,000,000  taels,  for  the  construction  of  a railway 
line  from  Chung-hou-so  to  Hsin-min  T’ing,  and  a branch 
line  to  Ying-tzu,  and  for  the  redemption  of  existing  loans 
to  the  Tientsin-Shan-hai-kuan  and  Tientsin-Lu-kou-ch’iao 
lines. 

“ 2.  The  security  for  the  loan  shall  be  the  permanent  way, 
rolling  stock  and  entire  property,  together  with  the  freight  and 
earnings  of  the  existing  lines  between  Peking,  Tientsin,  Tang-ku 
and  Chung-hou-so,  and  also  of  the  proposed  new  lines  when 
constructed,  in  addition  to  the  rights  of  mining  coal  and  iron, 
which  will  be  retained  by  the  Railway  Administration  on  each 
side  of  the  proposed  new  lines  for  a distance  to  be  determined. 
In  the  event  of  default  or  arrears  in  payment  of  interest  or 
repayments  of  principal,  the  said^railway  lines  and  mines  shall 
be  handed  over  to  representatives  deputed  by  the  Syndicate,  to 
manage  them  on  their  behalf,  until  principal  and  interest  of  the 
loan  are  redeemed  in  full,  when  the  management  will  revert  to 
the  Railway  Administration. 

“ It  will,  however,  be  provided  that  if  such  arrears  are  for  a 
small  sum,  and  it  appears  desirable  to  the  Syndicate  to  extend 


54 


MANCHURIA 


the  due  date  of  their  payment  for  a term  not  exceeding  three 
months,  it  shall  be  open  to  the  Syndicate  to  do  so. 

“In  the  event  of  any  special  circumstances  arising  neces- 
sitating the  introduction  of  important  changes  by  the  manage- 
ment aforesaid,  these  changes  shall  be  effected  in  consultation 
with  the  Administrator-General,  and  in  the  best  interests  of  the 
railway.  In  the  case  of  war  or  famine,  troops  and  grain  will  be 
transported  over  the  lines  on  terms  to  be  arranged  hereafter. 

“ No  further  loan,  charge  or  mortgage  shall  be  charged  on 
the  security  named  above  until  this  loan  is  redeemed. 

“3.  During  the  currency  of  this  loan  the  principal  mem- 
bers of  the  railway  staff  shall  be  capable  and  experienced 
Europeans,  who  shall  be,  as  at  present,  appointed  by  the 
Administrator-General  of  the  Railway,  and  may  be,  in  the 
event  of  their  misconduct  or  incompetency,  dismissed,  after 
consultation  with  the  Chief  Engineer.  If  there  are  Chinese 
with  sufficient  engineering  or  traffic  experience  they  may  be 
appointed  as  well  as  Europeans.  Should  it  be  necessary  to 
appoint  a new  Chief  Engineer,  such  appointment  shall  be  made 
in  consultation  with  the  Syndicate. 

“ In  addition  to  above,  a capable  and  experienced  European 
Railway  Accountant  shall  be  appointed  to  inspect  all  the 
accounts  of  the  railways. 

“ All  receipts  and  earnings  of  the  lines  herein  specified  shall 
be  paid  into  the  credit  of  the  Railway  Administration  with  the 
Hong-Kong  and  Shanghai  Banking  Corporation,  Tientsin, 
together  with  50,000  taels  annually  payable  under  the  Board 
of  Revenue’s  arrangement,  approved  by  the  Throne,  bv  each  of 
the  provinces  of  Shansi,  Shensi,  Honan  and  Anhui  for  railway 
purposes  for  ten  years. 

“All  expenses  of  repairing  and  maintaining  lines  will  be 
paid  from  this  account,  the  remainder  of  which  shall  then  be 
charged  with  the  service  of  this  loan. 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  MANCHURIA  55 


44  4.  The  rate  of  interest,  price,  term  of  years  and  other 
particulars  shall  be  left  to  the  Syndicate  to  arrange  on  the  best 
terms  possible  on  the  market  when  the  moment  appears  favour- 
able for  floating  the  loan.  Instalments  of  proceeds  will  be 
arranged  as  far  as  possible  to  suit  the  progress  of  construction 
and  the  requirements  of  the  Administrator-General,  interest 
being  calculated  from  the  date  of  such  payments.  The  loan 
will  be  redeemable  by  annual  drawings  to  be  scheduled  in  the 
final  agreement.  Besides  the  drawings  so  scheduled,  the 
Administrator-General  may  from  time  to  time,  on  giving  due 
notification  to  the  Syndicate,  call  for  extra  drawings  to  be  held, 
bonds  so  drawn  being  redeemed  by  the  Railway  Administration 
at  20  per  cent,  premium  on  their  par  value. 

“5.  If  it  should  be  found  that  the  loan  cannot  be  floated 
without  the  introduction  of  some  special  attraction,  the  Admin- 
istrator-General shall  memorialise  the  Throne,  recommending 
that  a concession  of  mining  rights  be  granted  to  the  Syndicate 
at  a point  or  points  on  the  lines,  and  on  terms  to  be  arranged 
with  the  Syndicate  on  the  basis  of  the  mining  regulations 
newly  established  by  the  Tsung-li  Yamen.  The  requests  of 
the  Syndicate  will  be  confined  to  mines  within  a distance  of 
five  li  of  the  railway. 

44  6.  The  date  of  issue  of  this  loan  shall  be  left  to  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  Syndicate,  to  be  fixed  in  accordance  with  the 
state  of  the  market,  but  should  it  be  found  impossible  to  issue 
it  before  the  1st  day  of  October  next  the  Syndicate  will  arrange 
to  advance  to  the  Administrator-General  on  or  about  that  date 
an  instalment  of  about  2,000,000  taels  on  account  of,  and 
repayable  out  of,  the  proceeds  of  the  loan  when  floated.  The 
terms  of  this  advance  shall  be  left  to  the  arrangement  of  the 
Syndicate  on  the  best  terms  obtainable,  interest  not  to  exceed 
the  rate  of  5^  per  cent,  per  annum,  and  the  Syndicate  shall  be 
authorised  to  issue  temporary  bonds  for  the  amount  if  required. 


56 


MANCHURIA 


“7.  For  the  satisfaction  of  the  investing  public  who  are 
unacquainted  with  China,  a satisfactory  report  will  be  required 
from  District  Engineer  Mr.  J.  Ginnell  as  to  the  condition  and 
earning  power  of  the  old  lines,  and  as  to  the  route,  prospects 
and  mineral  wealth  of  the  new  lines  to  be  constructed,  and 
Mr.  Ginnell  shall  be  instructed  by  the  Administrator-General 
to  proceed  to  London  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  signing  of 
this  Preliminary  Agreement  to  confer  with  the  Syndicate  on 
these  matters. 

“ 8.  The  terms  of  the  Preliminary  Agreement  will,  immedi- 
ately after  signature,  be  submitted  by  the  Administrator- 
General  to  the  Throne  for  sanction  by  Imperial  Edict,  which 
shall  be  officially  communicated  by  the  Tsung-li  Yamen  to  the 
British  Minister  in  Peking. 

“ 9.  Three  months  from  the  date  of  signature  of  this  Pre- 
liminary Agreement  shall  be  allowed  to  the  Syndicate  to  accept 
or  decline  its  terms.  Upon  their  confirmation  by  the  Syndicate 
this  Preliminary  Agreement  shall  be  replaced  by  a definite 
agreement,  providing  for  all  details. 

“Signed  at  Peking,  this  7th  day  of  June,  1898,  being  the 
19th  day  of  the  fourth  moon  of  the  24th  year  of  the  Emperor 
Kuang  Hsu.” 

When  the  terms  of  this  agreement  became  known,  objection 
was  raised  by  the  Russian  Representative  at  Peking  to  a mortgage, 
in  default,  of  the  line  built  and  to  be  built  north  of  the  Great 
Wall,  and,  after  a diplomatic  warfare  lasting  for  months,  the 
following  Agreement  was  signed  on  the  10th  of  October,  1898  : — 

“ Whereas,  on  the  7th  day  of  June,  1898,  being  the  19th 
day  of  the  4th  month  of  the  24th  year  of  the  Emperor  Kuang 
Hsu,  a Preliminary  Agreement  was  signed  at  Peking  between 
the  Administrator-General  and  the  Hong-Kong  and  Shanghai 
Banking  Corporation,  representing  a British  Syndicate,  for  a 
sterling  loan  for  the  equivalent  of  about  16,000,000  taels  for 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  MANCHURIA  57 


the  construction  of  a railway  line  from  Chung-hou-so  to  Hsin- 
min  T’ing  and  a branch  line  to  Ying-tzu,  and  for  the  redemption 
of  existing  loans  made  to  the  Tientsin-Shan-hai-kuan  and 
Tientsin-Lu-kou-ch’iao  Railway  lines;  and 

“ Whereas  in  terms  of  the  Preliminary  Agreement  a period 
of  three  months  from  its  date  was  allowed  to  the  Syndicate  to 
accept  or  decline  its  conditions ; and 

“ Whereas  the  Hong-Kong  and  Shanghai  Banking  Corpora- 
tion, before  the  expiration  of  the  period  named,  duly  notified 
the  Administrator-General  that  it  is  prepared,  with  certain 
modifications,  to  arrange  the  issue  of  the  loan  upon  the  con- 
ditions named  in  the  Preliminary  Agreement : 

“ It  is  now  agreed  as  follows  : — 

“1.  The  Corporation  agrees  to  issue  on  behalf  of  the 
Administrator-General  a sterling  loan  for  the  amount  of 
i?2,300,000,  the  proceeds  of  which  are  to  be  applied  in  the 
order  following : — 

“(1)  To  the  redemption  forthwith  or  at  maturity  of  the 
loans  and  advances  specified  in  the  statement  attached  to  this 
Agreement  which  have  been  made  by  foreign  banks  to  the 
Tientsin-Shan-hai-kuan  and  the  Tientsin-Lu-kou-cfriao  Railway 
lines.  The  Administrator- General  hereby  certifies  that  the 
total  amount  of  the  liabilities  due  by  the  lines  named  does 
not  exceed  the  sum  of  3,000,000  taels. 

“ (2)  To  the  carrying  out  within  a period  of  three  years 
from  the  date  of  this  Agreement  of  certain  improvements  and 
additions  to  rolling-stock  on  the  existing  lines  between  Peking 
and  Shan-hai-kuan,  recommended  by  the  European  Chief 
Engineer,  and  estimated  by  him  to  cost  about  1,500,000  taels. 

“ (3)  To  the  construction  of  a railway  line  from  Chung- 
hou-so  to  Hsin-min  T’ing,  and  one  from  a point  on  that  line 
near  Shih-shan-chan  to  Ying-tzu,  and  of  a branch  line  from 
Nu-erh-ho  to  the  collieries  of  Nan-p’iao. 


58 


MANCHURIA 


u The  Administrator- General  engages  that  the  construction 
of  the  new  lines  here  specified  shall  be  completed  within  a 
period  of  three  years  from  the  date  of  this  Agreement. 

“2.  In  the  event  of  the  proceeds  of  this  loan  being 
insufficient  for  the  completion  of  the  new  lines  here  specified, 
the  Administrator-General  will  provide  or  will  arrange  with 
the  Imperial  Government  of  China  to  provide  funds  from 
other  sources  sufficient  to  complete  their  construction. 

“ 3.  This  loan  shall  be  a first  charge  upon  the  security  of 
the  permanent  way,  rolling-stock  and  entire  property,  with 
the  freight  and  earnings  of  the  existing  lines  between  Peking 
and  Shan-hai-kuan,  and  on  the  freights  and  earnings  of  the 
new  lines  when  constructed.  The  Administrator-General  shall, 
during  the  continuance  of  this  loan,  maintain  the  railway 
buildings,  works,  rolling-stock  and  dependencies  in  good 
condition  and  order,  and  shall  increase  the  rolling-stock  from 
time  to  time  to  such  extent  as.  shall  be  necessary  for  the 
requirements  of  the  traffic. 

“Should  it  be  decided  hereafter  to  construct  branch  lines 
or  extensions  connecting  with  the  lines  herein  named,  their 
construction  shall  be  undertaken  by  the  Railway  Administration, 
and  should  the  funds  of  the  Railway  Administration  be  insuffi- 
cient for  that  purpose  it  shall  apply  to  the  Corporation  for 
the  same. 

“ 4.  The  principal  and  interest  of  this  loan  are  guaranteed 
by  the  Imperial  Government  of  China,  and  in  the  event  of 
default  in  payment  of  interest  or  repayment  of  principal  at 
due  date  the  Corporation  shall  immediately  notify  the  Imperial 
Government  of  China  thereof,  and  the  Imperial  Government  of 
China  will  thereupon  provide  the  funds  necessary  to  meet  such 
payment  in  sterling  in  London.  In  the  event  of  the  Imperial 
Government  of  China  being  unable  to  provide  the  funds  neces- 
sary to  meet  a payment  of  interest  or  principal  when  called 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  MANCHURIA  59 


upon  by  the  Corporation  to  do  so  in  terms  of  this  clause,  the 
said  railway  lines  and  entire  property  shall  thereupon  be  handed 
over  to  representatives  deputed  by  the  Corporation  to  manage, 
on  their  behalf,  until  principal  and  interest  of  the  loan  have 
been  redeemed  in  full,  when  the  management  will  revert  to  the 
Railway  Administration.  It  is  provided  that  should  arrears  of 
interest  or  principal  be  for  a small  sum,  and  it  appear  desirable 
to  the  Corporation  to  extend  the  due  date  of  their  payment  for 
a term  not  exceeding  three  months,  it  shall  be  open  to  the 
Corporation  to  do  so. 

“This  arrangement,  which  differs  from  other  contracts  in 
that  the  Administrator-General  retains  control  of  the  railway 
lines  so  long  as  the  principal  and  interest  of  this  loan  are 
regularly  paid,  has  been  agreed  to  in  consequence  of  the 
friendly  relations  which  have  long  existed  between  the  con- 
tracting parties. 

“5.  No  further  loan  shall  be  charged  upon  the  security 
named  above,  except  through  the  Corporation,  until  this  loan 
is  redeemed,  and  the  Tsung-li  Yamen  will  hand  to  the  British 
Minister  in  Peking  a written  undertaking  on  behalf  of  the 
Imperial  Government  of  China  that  the  railway  lines  named  in 
this  Agreement  shall  never  be  alienated  or  parted  with. 

“ 6.  During  the  currency  of  this  loan  the  Chief  Engineer  of 
the  railways  shall  be  a British  subject.  The  principal  members 
of  the  railway  staff  shall  be  capable  and  experienced  Europeans, 
who  shall  be,  as  at  present,  appointed  by  the  Administrator- 
General  of  the  Railways,  and  may  be,  in  the  event  of  their 
misconduct  or  incompetency,  ’ dismissed  after  consultation  with 
the  Chief  Engineer. 

“ If  there  are  Chinese  with  sufficient  engineering  or  traffic 
experience  they  may  be  appointed  as  well  as  Europeans. 

u Should  it  be  necessary  to  appoint  a new  Chief  Engineer,  such 
appointment  shall  be  made  in  consultation  with  the  Corporation. 


60 


MANCHURIA 


“ In  addition  to  the  above,  a capable  and  efficient  European 
Railway  Accountant  shall  be  appointed,  with  full  powers  to 
organise  and  direct  the  keeping  of  the  railway  accounts,  and  to 
act  with  the  Administrator-General  and  the  Chief  Engineer  of 
the  railway  in  the  supervision  of  receipts  and  expenditure. 

“7.  The  railway  lines  named  in  this  Agreement  being 
Imperial  Chinese  Government  lines,  in  the  event  of  war  or 
famine  Chinese  Government  troops  and  grain  may  be  trans- 
ported over  the  lines  free. 

“8.  All  receipts  and  earnings  of  the  lines  herein  specified 
shall  be  paid  into  the  credit  of  the  Railway  Administration 
with  the  Hong-Kong  and  Shanghai  Banking  Corporation, 
Tientsin,  together  with  50,000  taels  annually,  payable  under 
the  Board  of  Revenue’s  arrangement,  approved  by  the  Throne, 
by  each  of  the  provinces  of  Shansi,  Shensi,  Honan  and  Anhui, 
for  railway  purposes  for  ten  years. 

“ All  expenses  of  working  and  maintaining  the  lines  will  be 
paid  from  their  receipts  and  earnings,  the  remainder  of  which, 
together  with  the  provincial  funds  above  named,  shall  then  be 
charged  with  the  service  of  this  loan.  Payments  of  interest 
and  repayments  of  principal  shall  be  made  in  equal  monthly 
instalments,  and  in  accordance  with  the  amounts  and  dates  of 
a yearly  schedule,  which  will  be  furnished  to  the  Administrator- 
General  by  the  Bank.  These  payments  shall  be  made  by  the 
Administrator-General  to  the  Hong-Kong  and  Shanghai  Banking 
Corporation,  Tientsin,  in  Hongp’ing  sycee,  sufficient  to  provide 
the  sterling  amount  due  to  the  bondholders  in  terms  of  the 
prospectus  of  the  loan,  the  rate  of  exchange  for  these  payments 
being  fixed  by  that  Bank  as  each  such  payment  becomes  due. 
In  reimbursement  of  expenses  incurred  in  connection  with  the 
distribution  of  the  service  to  the  bondholders  of  the  principal 
and  interest  of  the  loan,  the  Hong-Kong  and  Shanghai  Banking 
Corporation,  Tientsin,  shall  receive  from  the  Railway  Adminis- 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  MANCHURIA  61 


tration  a commission  of  \ per  cent,  on  the  annual  loan  service, 
which  will  be  included  in  the  yearly  schedule  for  the  same. 

“9.  The  term  of  the  loan  shall  be  forty-live  years,  and, 
subject  to  the  modification  mentioned  hereinafter,  repayment 
of  principal  shall  be  made,  so  far  as  regards  the  bondholders, 
in  forty  equal  annual  instalments,  commencing  with  the  sixth 
year. 

“10.  Interest  on  the  loan  shall  be  charged  at  the  rate  of 
5 per  cent,  per  annum  on  the  nominal  principal,  and  shall  be 
calculated  on  the  balance  of  such  principal  at  any  time  out- 
standing, payments  of  interest  being  made  by  the  Administrator- 
General  in  accordance  with  the  amounts  and  dates  specified  in 
the  yearly  schedule  to  be  provided. 

“11.  The  loan  will  be  redeemed  by  annual  drawings  in 
London  as  provided  for  in  the  prospectus.  Besides  the  draw- 
ings as  provided  for,  the  Administrator-General  may,  on  giving 
three  months’  notice  to  the  Corporation,  call  for  extra  drawings 
to  be  held  for  any  amount.  Bonds  so  drawn  to  be  redeemed 
by  the  Railway  Administration  at  20  per  cent,  premium  on 
their  par  value.  Any  such  extra  drawings  must  take  place  on 
the  date  of  the  ordinary  drawing  provided  by  the  prospectus. 

“ In  the  event  of  such  extra  drawings  taking  place,  subse- 
quent payments  of  interest  will  be  adjusted  in  the  yearly 
schedule  to  be  provided,  but  repayments  of  principal  shall 
continue  unaltered  in  terms  of  clause  9 of  this  Agreement  until 
the  loan  is  redeemed. 

“The  Imperial  Government  of  China  hereby  engages  that 
this  loan  shall  not  be  redeemed  or  converted  otherwise  than  as 
herein  provided. 

“ 12.  The  price  agreed  upon  for  this  loan  is  90  per  cent,  net 
of  the  nominal  principal,  but  should  an  unfavourable  state  of 
the  market  prevail  at  the  time  of  issuing  the  prospectus,  the 
Corporation  is  hereby  authorised  to  reduce  the  price  of  the  loan, 


62 


MANCHURIA 


at  its  own  discretion,  to  not  less  than  88  per  cent,  net  to  the 
Railway  Administration. 

“ 13.  The  Corporation  are  hereby  authorised  to  issue  to  sub- 
scribers to  the  loan  bonds  for  the  total  amount  of  the  loan  in 
pounds  sterling,  in  such  form  and  for  such  amounts  as  shall 
appear  desirable  to  the  Corporation,  and  the  Minister  for  China 
in  London  will  seal  all  such  bonds  with  his  official  seal,  as 
evidence  that  the  Imperial  Government  of  China  is  bound 
thereby.  Each  such  bond  shall  bear  the  following  clause : — 

“ 4 The  Imperial  Government  of  China,  pursuant  to  an 
Imperial  Edict,  dated  [27th  November,  1898],  unconditionally 
guarantees  and  declares  itself  responsible  for  the  payment  of 
the  principal  moneys  and  interest  hereby  secured,  and  in  faith 
thereof  it  has  specially  authorised  the  Chinese  Minister  in 
London  to  sign  this  bond  with  his  official  seal.'* 

“14.  All  bonds  and  coupons  and  payments  made  and 
received  in  connection  with  this  loan  shall  be  exempt  from 
Chinese  taxes  and  imposts  for  ever. 

“ 15.  All  details  necessary  for  the  prospectus  and  connected 
with  the  service  to  the  bondholders  of  the  interest  and  repay- 
ment of  principal  of  this  loan,  not  herein  explicitly  provided 
for,  shall  be  left  to  the  arrangement  of  the  Corporation,  who  are 
hereby  authorised  to  issue  a prospectus  of  the  loan  as  soon  as 
possible  after  the  signing  of  this  Agreement. 

“The  Tsung-li  Yamen  will  instruct  the  Chinese  Minister 
in  London  to  co-operate  with  the  Corporation  in  any  matters 
requiring  conjoint  action. 

“16.  The  loan  shall  be  issued  to  the  public  as  soon  as 
possible  after  the  signing  of  this  Agreement,  and  shall  date  from 
the  first  day  of  the  month  of  its  issue.  Payment  of  the  entire 
proceeds  will  be  made  in  London  to  the  order  of  the  Adminis- 
trator-General not  later  than  the  31st  day  of  March,  1899; 
of  the  above  proceeds,  the  Corporation  will  advance  to  the 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  MANCHURIA  63 


order  of  the  Administrator-General  in  London,  on  or  before 
the  31st  day  of  October  next,  the  sum  of  i?250,000 ; this 
advance  will  bear  interest  at  the  rate  of  5J  per  cent,  per  annum 
until  such  time  as  the  first  instalment  of  the  loan  proceeds  shall 
be  available,  when  it  shall  be  deducted  from  those  proceeds  by 
the  Corporation. 

“ 17.  In  the  event  of  an  unfavourable  state  of  the  market 
rendering  the  issue  of  this  loan  and  the  payment  of  its  pro- 
ceeds to  the  Railway  Administration  impossible  on  the  terms 
named  without  loss  to  the  Corporation,  the  Corporation  shall 
be  granted  such  extension  of  time  for  the  performance  of  its 
contract  with  the  Administrator-General  as  the  circumstances 
demand,  any  advances  or  instalments  of  proceeds  already  made 
to  the  Railway  Administration  being  in  that  case  treated  as 
regards  payment  of  interest,  repayment  of  principal,  security, 
and  Imperial  Chinese  Government  guarantee  in  terms  of  this 
present  Agreement  and  as  forming  part  of  the  principal  amount 
of  this  loan.  Similar  extension  of  time  for  the  issue  of  this 
loan  and  payment  of  its  proceeds  shall  also  be  granted  in  the 
event  of  the  Deutsch-Asiatische  Bank,  Berlin,  objecting  to  its 
issue  before  the  month  of  April  next,  in  accordance  with  the 
terms  of  clause  9 of  the  Agreement  for  the  Chinese  Imperial 
Government  4J  per  cent,  sterling  loan  of  1898. 

“18.  Immediately  after  the  signature  of  this  Agreement, 
and  before  the  issue  of  the  prospectus  of  the  loan  to  the  public, 
the  Administrator-General  will  memorialise  the  Throne  and 
obtain  an  Imperial  Edict  confirming  and  sanctioning  the  pro- 
visions of  this  Agreement,  the  Imperial  Edict,  so  received,  being 
then  communicated  officially  and  without  delay  by  the  Tsung- 
li  Yamen  to  the  British  Minister  in  Peking. 

“ 19.  The  Corporation  may,  subject  to  all  its  obligations, 
transfer  or  delegate  all  or  any  of  its  rights,  powers  and  dis- 
cretions to  any  British  Company,  Directors  or  Agents,  in  consul- 


64 


MANCHURIA 


tation  with  the  Administrator-General,  with  or  without  power 
of  further  transfer  and  sub-delegation. 

“ 20.  This  Agreement  is  executed  in  quadruplicate  in 
English  and  Chinese,  one  copy  to  be  retained  by  the  Adminis- 
trator-General, one  by  the  Tsung-li  Yamen,  one  by  the  British 
Minister  in  Peking,  and  one  by  the  Corporation.  Should  any 
doubt  arise  as  to  the  interpretation  of  the  contract,  the  English 
text  shall  be  accepted  as  the  standard. 

66  Signed  at  Peking  by  the  contracting  parties,  this  25th 
day  of  the  8th  month  of  the  24th  year  of  the  Emperor  Kuang 
Hsii,  being  the  10th  day  of  October,  1898,  Western  Calendar.” 

Not  only  was  an  alteration  made  in  the  Agreement  between 
the  Chinese  Administrator-General  of  Railways  and  the  Hong- 
Kong  and  Shanghai  Banking  Corporation,  but  the  whole 
question  of  railway  concessions  was  opened  up  so  far  as 
Great  Britain  and  Russia  were  concerned,  and  resulted  in  the 
following  Declaration  and  Additional  Note,  which  were  signed 
and  exchanged  on  the  28th  of  April,  1899,  by  the  duly-appointed 
Representatives  of  the  two  Powers  : — 

“ Great  Britain  and  Russia,  animated  by  a sincere  desire  to 
avoid  in  China  all  cause  of  conflict  on  questions  where  their 
interests  meet,  and  taking  into  consideration  the  economic  and 
geographical  gravitation  of  certain  parts  of  that  Empire,  have 
agreed  as  follows  : — 

“ 1.  Great  Britain  engages  not  to  seek  for  her  own 
account,  or  on  behalf  of  British  subjects  or  of  others,  any 
railway  concessions  to  the  north  of  the  Great  Wall  of  China, 
and  not  to  obstruct,  directly  or  indirectly,  applications  for 
railway  concessions  in  that  region  supported  by  the  Russian 
Government. 

“ 2.  Russia,  on  her  part,  engages  not  to  seek  for  her  own 
account,  or  on  behalf  of  Russian  subjects  or  of  others,  any 
railway  concessions  in  the  basin  of  the  Yang-tsze,  and  not 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  MANCHURIA  65 


to  obstruct,  directly  or  indirectly,  applications  for  railway  con- 
cessions in  that  region  supported  by  the  British  Government. 

“ The  two  contracting  parties  having  nowise  in  view  to 
infringe  in  any  way  the  sovereign  rights  of  China  or  existing 
treaties,  will  not  fail  to  communicate  to  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ment the  present  arrangement,  which,  by  averting  all  cause 
of  complications  between  them,  is  of  a nature  to  consolidate 
peace  in  the  Far  East,  and  to  serve  the  primordial  interests  of 
China  herself.” 

Then  comes  the  Additional  Note  : — 

“ In  order  to  complete  the  notes  exchanged  this  day  respect- 
ing the  partition  of  spheres  for  concessions  for  the  construction 
and  working  of  railways  in  China,  it  has  been  agreed  to  record 
in  the  present  Additional  Note  the  arrangement  arrived  at  with 
regard  to  the  line  Shan-hai-kuan-Newchwang,  for  the  construc- 
tion of  which  a loan  has  been  already  contracted  by  the  Chinese 
Government  with  the  Shanghai-Hong-Kong  Bank,  acting  on 
behalf  of  the  British  and  Chinese  Corporation. 

“The  general  arrangement  established  by  the  above-men- 
tioned notes  is  not  to  infringe  in  any  way  the  rights  acquired 
under  the  said  Loan  Contract,  and  the  Chinese  Government 
may  appoint  both  an  English  engineer  and  a European 
accountant  to  supervise  the  construction  of  the  line  in  question 
and  the  expenditure  of  the  money  appropriated  to  it. 

“But  it  remains  understood  that  this  fact  cannot  be  taken 
as  constituting  a right  of  property  or  foreign  control,  and  that 
the  line  in  question  is  to  remain  a Chinese  line,  under  the 
control  of  the  Chinese  Government,  and  cannot  be  mortgaged 
or  alienated  to  a non-Chinese  company. 

“As  regards  the  branch  line  from  Siaoheichan  (Hsiao-hei- 
shan)  to  Sinminting  (Hsin-min  T’ing),  in  addition  to  the  afore- 
said restrictions,  it  has  been  agreed  that  it  is  to  be  constructed 
by  China  herself,  who  may  permit  European — not  necessarily 


66 


MANCHURIA 


British — engineers  to  periodically  inspect  it,  and  to  verify  and 
certify  that  the  work  is  being  properly  executed. 

“ The  present  Special  Agreement  is  naturally  not  to  inter- 
fere in  any  way  with  the  right  of  the  Russian  Government  to 
support,  if  it  thinks  fit,  applications  of  Russian  subjects  or 
establishments  for  concessions  for  railways,  which,  starting  from 
the  main  Manchurian  line  in  a south-westerly  direction,  would 
traverse  the  region  in  which  the  Chinese  line,  terminating'  at 
Sinminting  and  Newchwang,  is  to  be  constructed.” 

I have  already  stated  that  Chung-hou-so  is  situated  forty 
miles  to  the  north  of  the  Great  Wall,  and  this  and  the  ex- 
tensions to  Hsin-min  T’ing  and  the  port  of  Newchwang  (Ying- 
tzu  or  Ying-kow),  amounting  to  258  miles,  give  298  miles  of 
Chinese  railways  built  and  projected  in  Manchuria.  To  this 
has  to  be  added  the  projected  branch  to  the  Nan-p’iao  coal 
mines,  making  a total  length  of  328  miles.  The  line  from 
Chung-hou-so  to  Newchwang  was  completed  with  temporary 
bridging  early  in  the  present  year,  and  a certain  amount  of 
passenger  traffic  was  being  carried  on  between  Tientsin  and 
Newchwang  when  I left  the  latter  in  the  beginning  of  April. 
At  that  time,  too,  the  embankment  of  the  extension  to  Hsin- 
min  T’ing  was  completed  from  Kou-pang-tzu,  about  fifty-six 
miles  from  Newchwang  and  the  place  ultimately  selected  as  the 
junction  of  the  Newchwrang  and  Hsin-min  T’ing  lines  instead 
of  Shih-shan-chan  or  Hsiao-hei-shan  ; but  rails  to  complete  the 
work  had  not  yet  arrived.  I understand  that  the  estimated 
cost  of  the  extensions  from  Chung-hou-so  to  Newchwang  and 
Hsin-min-T’ing  is  put  at  taels  9,800,000,  and  of  the  branch  to 
the  Nan-p’iao  mines  at  taels  1,000,000,  a total  of  taels  10,800,000. 
These  lines,  together  with  certain  improvements  and  additions 
to  rolling  stock,  had  to  be  completed  by  the  10th  of  October, 
1901.  These  Chinese  railways  are  built  with  the  English  gauge, 
and  I have  been  assured  by  experts,  who  had  no  interest  what- 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  MANCHURIA  67 


ever  in  their  success,  that  they  are  as  strongly  constructed  as 
any  English  line. 

The  terminus  of  the  Chinese  railway  is  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Liao,  below  Newchwang,  and  Japanese  and  British  Con- 
cessions have  been  secured  to  the  east  of  the  railway  station, 
while  the  terminus  of  the  branch  line  to  the  Central  Manchurian 
railway  is  three  miles  above  the  town,  on  the  left  bank,  where  a 
large  Russian  railway  settlement  has  been  built. 

In  dealing  with  the  trade  of  Manchuria  in  Chapter  X.,  I 
have  pointed  out  the  serious  disadvantages  under  which  it 
labours,  due  in  a great  measure  to  climatic  conditions,  the 
entire  absence  of  properly  constructed  roads,  and  the  slow  and 
clumsy  methods  of  transport.  I have  said  that  it  is  practically 
impossible  to  sow,  reap  and  export  beans,  the  most  valuable 
trade  product  of  the  country,  in  the  same  year,  and  that  they 
have  to  be  carried  by  cart  and  stored  at  depots  on  the  waterways 
to  await  shipment  when  the  ice  breaks  up  in  the  following  spring. 
In  this  way  capital  is  locked  up  for  months,  and  heavy  storage 
charges  are  incurred.  Moreover,  the  great  commercial  water- 
route,  the  Liao  River,  is  navigated  only  for  200  miles  of  its 
course,  and  to  bring  produce  from  the  far  interior  to  the 
depots  necessitates  a long  and  expensive  overland  carriage,  to 
which  has  to  be  added  later  a water  freight  by  no  means  light. 
Inquiries  which  I made  in  1899  showed  that  the  lowest  cart 
and  boat  rates  amounted  to  sums  equivalent  to  3d.  and  l^d. 
respectively  per  ton  per  mile,  and  railways  should  have  little 
difficulty  in  competing  with  these  rates. 

There  can,  I think,  be  little  doubt  that  the  Russian  Central 
Manchurian  Railway,  stretching  as  it  will  from  the  Sungari  to 
the  commercial  port  of  Dalny — a port  open  all  the  year  round — 
will  best  serve  the  country  to  the  east  of  the  Liao  and  even  the 
east  of  Mongolia,  for,  although  the  Chinese  railway  to  the  west 
of  the  Liao  will  pass  through  a fertile  tract,  that  tract  is  limited, 


68 


MANCHURIA 


and  even  at  Hsin-min  T*ing  it  will  still  be  far  removed  from 
the  great  agricultural  centres  to  the  north,  which  could  more 
conveniently  send  their  produce  to  stations  on  the  Central 
Manchurian  Railway.  Moreover,  the  Chinese  railway  connects 
with  Newchwang,  Tientsin  and  Ch’in-wang-tao,  which  are  cer- 
tainly ice-bound  for  varying  periods  in  winter.  If  the  Central 
Manchurian  Railway  succeeds  in  securing  the  bulk  of  the  products 
for  export  at  Dalny,  it  cannot,  I think,  fail  to  carry  imports  into 
the  interior  from  that  port,  for,  having  travelled  over  the  whole 
of  the  Siberian  Railway  to  Moscow,  I am  of  opinion  that  it  will 
never  be  a highway  for  foreign  goods  intended  for  Manchuria 
and  China.  I may  be  wrong,  but  that  is  the  conclusion  at 
which  I have  arrived.  It  has  been  argued  that  the  market  of 
Manchuria  is  established  at  Newchwang,  and  that  it  is  a very 
difficult  matter  to  divert  trade  to  a new  channel.  The  argument 
would  be  perfectly  sound  if  the  permanent  Chinese  residents  in 
Newchwang  were  the  traders ; but  they  are  not.  The  bulk  of 
the  trade  of  Newchwang,  whether  in  exports  or  imports,  is  done 
by  Chinese  merchants  from  the  south,  who  reside  at  the  port 
during  the  open  season  and  return  home  over  winter.  They 
are  mere  birds  of  passage,  who  flock  to  Newchwang  because  it 
is  as  yet  the  only  port  in  Manchuria  open  to  trade  and  steamer 
traffic ; but  when  another  port  is  opened,  where  trade  can  be 
carried  on  summer  and  winter,  I see  no  reason  why  they  should 
not  resort  to  that  port  if  they  can  pick  up  profits.  Some  people 
have  pinned  their  faith  to  Clffin-wang-tao,  but  it  cannot  be 
argued  that  the  climatic  conditions  are  as  favourable  as  those 
of  Dalny.  Apart  altogether  from  the  rival  claims  of  these  ports 
to  the  trade  of  Manchuria,  one  thing  is  certain,  and  it  is  that 
the  introduction  of  railways  will  cause  an  enormous  development 
of  the  export  trade  of  the  country  and  a corresponding  increase 
in  imports,  and  that  the  British  manufacturer  should  be  able 
to  take  his  fair  share  in  this  development,  provided  equality 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  MANCHURIA  69 


of  treatment  in  the  matter  of  taxation  and  railway  rates  is 
assured. 

I have  described  above  how  Manchuria  was  visited  by  war 
in  1894-95,  and  in  1899  pestilence  in  the  shape  of  bubonic 
plague  claimed  a considerable  number  of  victims.  The  first 
case  that  came  to  the  knowledge  of  the  medical  practitioner  at 
Newchwang  occurred  early  in  July  in  a village  just  outside  the 
walls  of  the  town.  It  was  impossible  to  trace  with  any  degree 
of  accuracy  the  history  of  the  case  ; but  everything  seemed  to 
point  to  its  importation  by  shipping  from  Swatow  or  Hong- 
Kong,  which  were  infected  at  the  time,  and  between  which  and 
Newchwang  there  is  constant  communication.  It  soon  became 
certain  that  the  disease  had  assumed  an  epidemic  form  ; but  it 
took  some  two  months  to  induce  the  Chinese  Government  to 
recognise  the  gravity  of  the  situation  and  the  serious  injury  to 
trade  and  revenue  which  inaction  was  causing.  At  last  they 
subscribed  a sum  of  Haikwan  taels  10,000,  to  enable  measures 
to  be  taken  to  stamp  out  the  disease  and  cleanse  the  town. 
This  sum  was  more  than  covered  by  the  Chinese  Eastern  Rail- 
way Company  for  the  protection  of  the  Chinese  coolies  engaged 
on  railway  construction,  and  was  followed  later  by  a much  larger 
subscription  by  the  same  company.  The  foreign  community  of 
the  port  also  subscribed  most  liberally,  and  the  whole  of  the 
contributions  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  an  International 
Sanitary  Board,  of  which  the  writer  was  appointed  chairman. 
By  this  time,  however,  some  two  thousand  victims,  mostly  young 
men,  had  succumbed  to  the  disease,  which  was  beginning  to  show 
signs  of  abatement.  On  taking  office  the  Sanitary  Board  at 
once  secured  by  telegraph  the  services  of  fifteen  Japanese  doctors 
and  a Japanese  sanitary  engineer,  prepared  plague  and  observa- 
tion hospitals,  purchased  a plague  cemetery,  as  well  as  a separate 
cemetery  for  the  poor,  divided  the  town  into  wards,  which  were 
daily  visited  by  the  medical  staff1  in  search  of  cases,  established 


70 


MANCHURIA 


dispensaries  and  offices  in  each  ward,  where  application  could  be 
made  for  assistance  and  medicines  free  of  charge,  not  only  in 
plague  but  in  all  cases  of  sickness  or  disease,  buried  all  exposed 
coffins  and  bodies  in  and  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of 
the  town,  disinfected  all  infected  houses  as  far  as  possible,  handed 
over  the  streets  and  drains  to  a large  staff  of  workmen  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  sanitary  engineer,  and  took  every  other 
possible  measure  to  stamp  out  the  dreaded  pest.  Three  Russian 
doctors  also  took  part  in  the  work  as  volunteers.  It  was 
expressly  stipulated  by  the  Chinese  Government  that  no  com- 
pulsory measures  should  be  taken ; but  Chinese  notices  were 
printed  and  posted  in  thousands  throughout  the  town,  warning 
the  inhabitants  of  the  gravity  of  the  disease,  and  advising  them 
to  submit,  for  their  own  benefit,  to  the  operations  of  the  Sani- 
tary Board,  and  Chinese  booklets  in  the  same  sense  were  dis- 
tributed by  the  medical  staff  during  their  house-to-house 
visitations.  I have  said  that  before  the  Sanitary  Board  assumed 
office  the  plague  had  shown  signs  of  abatement,  and  only  eight 
or  nine  cases,  latterly  of  the  pneumonic  form,  were  actually 
treated  by  the  medical  staff,  the  last  case  occurring  on  the  9th 
of  December.  As  the  abatement  of  the  disease  seemed  to 
coincide  with  the  advent  of  cool  weather,  the  medical  staff  were 
directed,  at  my  request,  to  cany  out  a series  of  experiments  on 
the  effect  of  low  temperatures  upon  plague  bacilli,  which  had 
been  procured  from  the  cases  treated.  As  the  winter  tempera- 
ture of  Newchwang  falls  generally  below  zero  Fahr.  every  year, 
it  seemed  to  be  essential  that  these  experiments  should  be 
earned  out  as  a guide  to  the  Sanitary  Board  in  the  steps  to  be 
taken  to  prevent  a recrudescence  of  the  disease.  The  following 
results,  although  obtained  from  experiments  made  with  the 
plague  bacillus  in  an  artificial  state  of  existence,  may  add 
something  to  the  life-history  of  this  interesting  vegetable 
parasite : — 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  MANCHURIA  71 


1.  The  bacillus  in  a dry  state  promptly  dies. 

2.  In  a semi-dry  state  it  is  destroyed  (in  the  incubator)  at 

a temperature  of  54°  Fahr.  in  from  fourteen  to  eighteen 
hours. 

3.  In  prepared  nutrient  medium  (bouillon  and  agar-agar)  it 

will  grow  and  multiply  in  a temperature  of  from  45° 
to  65°  Fahr. 

4.  The  most  suitable  temperature  for  its  growth  and  de- 

velopment is  the  temperature  of  the  human  body. 

5.  Whether  in  prepared  nutrient  medium  or  in  a semi-dry 

state  it  is  not  destroyed  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere 
at  a temperature  of  —-12°  Fahr. 

6.  In  prepared  nutrient  medium  it  is  destroyed  in  from 

seven  to  eight  hours  by  exposure  to  sunshine  at  a 
temperature  of  44°  Fahr. 

7.  In  a semi-dry  state  it  is  destroyed  in  from  six  to  seven 

hours  by  exposure  to  sunshine  at  a temperature  of  44° 
Fahr. 

8.  In  distilled  water  at  a temperature  of  34°  Fahr.  it  grows 

slowly,  and  continues  to  multiply  even  after  fourteen 
days ; but,  owing  to  insufficient  nutrient  matter,  it 
undergoes  very  remarkable  involutions  — a sign  of 
diminishing  virulence. 

9.  After  multiplication  the  parent  bacillus  dies  in  from  seven 

to  eight  days. 

The  disease  spread  for  about  forty  miles  to  the  north  and 
south  of  the  port ; but  it  never  obtained  a footing  in  the  far 
interior.  Newchwang  stretches  for  about  three  miles  along  the 
alluvial  bank  of  the  Liao,  with  a width  of  from  a half  to  three- 
quarters  of  a mile  a few  feet  above  high-water  mark,  and  the 
filthy  condition  of  its  streets  held  out  every  inducement  to  the 
plague  to  stay ; but  from  November  to  April  it  is  blessed  with  a 
dry,  cold  temperature  and  abundance  of  sunshine,  which  may  have 


72 


MANCHURIA 


disastrously  affected  the  bacillus  in  its  natural  condition  in  the 
soil,  and  greatly  assisted  the  efforts  of  the  Sanitary  Board  to  give 
it  its  quietus.  At  any  rate,  the  plague  was  stayed  early  in 
December,  and  there  had  been  no  recrudescence  when  I left  New- 
chwang  in  the  middle  of  April,  1900  ; nor  have  I heard  of  any 
fresh  outbreak  since  that  time.  With  the  exception  of  several 
Russians,  who  are  supposed  to  have  contracted  the  disease  while 
travelling,  and  three  or  four  of  whom  died  in  hospital  at  the 
Russian  railway  settlement  above  Newchwang,  none  of  the 
foreign  community  of  the  port  was  attacked. 

Manchuria  has  again  become  the  theatre  of  military  opera- 
tions. In  consequence  of  Chinese  forts  having  opened  fire  on 
Russian  shipping  on  the  Amur  and  the  bombardment  of  the 
town  of  Blagoveschensk,  three  Russians  columns,  starting  from 
the  Trans-Baikal  province,  Blagoveschensk  and  Habarovsk, 
have  occupied  Tsitsihar,  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Hei-lung-chiang.  The  capital  of  the  Kirin  province  has  also 
been  taken  possession  of  by  Russian  troops  ; the  port  of  New- 
chwang fell  into  Russian  hands  on  the  5th  of  August;  and 
Moukden  was  occupied  on  the  1st  of  October.  Russia  now 
holds  the  capitals  of  the  three  provinces.  Whatever  the  result 
of  the  present  crisis  in  China  may  be,  it  will  not  be  denied  that 
Manchuria  has  had  her  fair  share  of  the  troubles  which  have 
beset  the  Celestial  Empire  from  1894  to  1900. 


CHAPTER  III 

TO  PORT  ARTHUR  AND  ALONG  THE  EASTERN  FRONTIER 
OF  MANCHURIA 

HEN  I had  ascertained  that  my  furlough,  for  which 


spring  of  1900  I set  about  discovering  how  much  of  the  Siberian 
Railway  was  actually  completed,  and  whether  it  would  be 
feasible  to  return  to  England  by  this  route  with  my  wife  and 
son,  nine  years  of  age.  The  information  obtainable  was  very 
conflicting : some  Russians  in  Newchwang  assured  me  that 
the  line  from  Stretensk  to  Lake  Baikal  had  just  been  finished, 
and  that  I could  depend  on  being  able  to  travel  by  rail,  with  the 
exception  of  the  crossing  of  Baikal,  from  Stretensk  to  Moscow 
and  St.  Petersburg,  while  others  stated  that  there  was  still  a 
considerable  hiatus  between  Stretensk  and  the  lake,  that  it  would 
be  necessary  to  ride  or  drive,  and  that  travelling  by  construc- 
tion trains,  which  alone  would  be  available,  would  be  of  the 
roughest  description.  Open  trucks,  I was  told,  might  be  our 
fate.  But  one  Russian  gentleman  told  me  that  he  had  actually 
travelled  from  Baikal  to  Stretensk  by  rail  in  the  autumn  of 
1899,  and  that,  in  all  probability,  great  improvements  had 
been  effected  since  that  time.  This  settled  our  homeward 
route.  For  myself  it  mattered  not,  as  I intended  to  follow 
the  track  of  the  Manchurian  or  Chinese  Eastern  Railway  from 
Port  Arthur  to  the  Trans-Baikal  province,  taking  advantage, 
as  much  as  possible,  of  the  sections  already  completed  and  in 
course  of  construction.  At  the  same  time  I attempted  ta 


I had  been  waiting  a year,  would  be  granted  in  the 


(73) 


74 


MANCHURIA 


work  up  a smattering  of  Russian ; but  I may  say  here  that, 
although  I succeeded  in  being  able  to  express  my  actual  wants, 

I found  that  my  vocabulary,  when  really  put  to  the  test,  was 
totally  insufficient  to  grapple  with  the  difficulties  encountered 
or  to  elicit  desirable  information.  As  mv  Russian  colleague 
at  Newchwang,  who  was  also  proceeding  on  furlough,  promised 
to  accompany  me,  while  our  respective  families  were  to  meet 
at  Vladivostock  and  travel  together  by  rail  and  river  to 
Stretensk,  I laid  little  stress  on  a knowledge  of  Russian.  My 
knowledge  of  Chinese  would  make  the  Manchurian  part  of 
the  journey  comparatively  easy.  When  the  above  arrange- 
ment was  arrived  at,  I procured  from  His  Majesty’s  Minister 
at  Peking  two  passports,  one  for  my  family  and  another  for 
myself,  both  of  which  were  duly  viseed  by  the  Russian  Legation 
prior  to  transmission.  Meantime  my  colleague  informed  me 
that  he  was  unable  to  travel  through  Manchuria,  but  that 
he  would  accompany  his  family  to  Vladivostock,  where,  on  a 
date  to  be  fixed  by  him,  he  would  meet  my  family  and  travel 
with  them  to  Stretensk.  My  family  then  left  for  Shanghai 
to  await  the  announcement  of  the  date,  and  I handed  over 
charge  to  my  successor  on  the  8th  of  April.  On  the  morning 
of  the  10th  I started  for  Port  Arthur  by  rail,  and  arrived 
there  on  the  afternoon  of  the  11th.  Next  morning  I left  Port 
Arthur  again  by  rail,  on  my  projected  long  journey  through 
Manchuria ; but  on  arrival  at  Newchwang,  on  the  evening  of 
the  13th,  I was  rather  surprised  to  learn  that  my  fellow-traveller- 
to-be  had  again  changed  his  mind  and  his  plans,  and  that  he 
now  proposed  to  return  to  Russia  by  way  of  Peking,  Kalgan 
and  Kiakhta.  I was  also  told  that  washouts  had  occurred  in 
the  line  between  Newchwang  and  T’ieh-ling,  which  was  then 
the  rail-head  north  of  the  port,  and  that  if  I wished  to  travel 
by  train  I must  wait  till  the  necessary  repairs  were  effected. 
My  plans,  like  the  line,  were  now  blocked ; my  wife’s  Russian 


(l)  RUSSIAN'  RAILWAY  SETTLEMENT  NEAR  NEWCHWANG 

(2)  MATERIAL  FOR  RAILWAY 

(3)  AMERICAN'  LOCOMOTIVE  PUT  TOGETHER  AT  RUSSIAN'  RAILWAY  SETTLEMENT 

(4)  BUILDING  CENTRAL  MANCHURIAN  RAILWAY 


RUSSIAN  CENTRAL  MANCHURIAN  RAILWAY 


LIAO  TUNG  PENINSULA 


75 


vocabulary  was  more  limited  than  my  own,  and  it  was  utterly 
impossible  for  her  to  proceed  to  Stretensk  by  way  of  Vladi- 
vostock,  Habarovsk  and  Blagoveschensk  without  assistance ; 
while  the  railway  on  which  I had  depended  for  a long  lift  at 
the  outset  of  my  journey  was  unavailable  for  some  indefinite 
period.  There  was  no  help  for  it  but  to  proceed  to  Shanghai, 
thence  take  steamer  to  Vladivostock,  and  travel  round,  instead 
of  through,  Manchuria.  Before  attempting  a description  of 
this  journey,  to  which  this  and  the  following  chapter  will  be 
devoted,  I must  say  a few  words  regarding  my  trip  to  Port 
Arthur. 

On  the  evening  of  the  9th  of  April,  1900,  I rode  in  a Chinese 
cart  to  the  Russian  railway  station  at  Niu-chia-t’un,  where  I 
dined  with  Mr.  Titoff,  the  resident  engineer.  This  gentleman, 
to  whom  I am  indebted  for  many  kindnesses,  not  only  to  myself 
but  also  to  friends  who  had  from  time  to  time  requested  my 
assistance  in  procuring  permission  to  travel  on  the  line,  had 
kindly  placed  at  my  disposal  a comfortable  carriage  in  the  train 
which  was  to  start  early  next  morning.  At  dinner  I met  the 
newly -appointed  Financial  Commissioner  at  Port  Arthur,  who 
spoke  English  fluently,  and  manifested  a great  interest  in  the 
financial  condition  and  taxation  of  Manchuria,  more  especially 
the  taxation  of  trade.  He  was  a fellow-passenger  to  Port 
Arthur,  and  lost  no  opportunity  of  discussing  with  me  the 
future  commercial  probabilities  of  the  Manchurian  railway. 
On  the  probable  strategical  value  of  the  line  we  said  nothing. 
The  total  length  of  the  track  from  Newchwang  to  Port  Arthur 
is  275  versts,  or,  roughly  speaking,  183 J miles.  We  started  at 
seven  o'clock,  and  after  a run  of  one  hour  and  forty-five  minutes 
over  flat  country  reached  Ta-shih-ch’iao,  a large  station  with 
numerous  sidings  on  the  main  Manchurian  line,  seventeen  miles 
east  of  Newchwang.  Owing  to  heavy  rains  the  previous  day  and 
the  lack  of  satisfactory  ballast  the  track  was  soft,  and  the  train 


76 


MANCHURIA 


had  to  be  run  with  care.  Before  arrival  at  the  station,  which  lies 
about  half  a mile  to  the  north-west  of  the  village  after  w’hich 
it  is  named,  we  crossed  a stream,  flowing  south,  by  a temporary 
wooden  bridge,  close  and  to  the  south  of  which  pile-driving  was 
proceeding,  and  the  granite  abutments  for  the  iron  roof  of  a 
small  bridge  were  being  built.  To  the  east  of  Ta-shih-ch’iao 
a range  of  low  hills  runs  north  towards  Hai-ch’eng  and  south 
to  the  Liao-tung  peninsula,  while  to  the  west  a few  isolated  hills 
dot  the  plain.  To  the  eastern  face  and  near  the  summit  of  the 
highest  of  the  latter  clings  Yao-chou  Miao — a temple  of  several 
courtyards — named  after  the  hill  on  which  it  is  built,  Yao-chou- 
shan.  The  main  line  runs  north  and  south  on  the  flat  between 
the  range  and  the  isolated  hills;  but  the  latter  quickly  disappear, 
leaving  a low,  bare  plain  stretching  westward  to  the  sea.  A 
dreary-looking  waste  now;  but  in  the  summer  and  autumn, 
when  I have  visited  it,  this  plain  is  a centre  of  activity,  for  here 
it  is  that  the  greater  part  of  the  salt  consumed  in  Manchuria  is 
manufactured.  A light  line  was  laid  down  from  the  station  at 
Ta-shih-ch’iao  to  a hill  half  a mile  to  the  north-east,  whence 
ballast  was  being  excavated.  We  were  now’  joined  by  another 
passenger,  a Russian  doctor  from  one  of  the  railway  hospitals, 
bound  for  Port  Arthur.  He  was  going  to  attend  a meeting  of 
a society — botanical,  I imagine — recently  formed  at  Port  Arthur, 
and  he  was  very  keen  on  the  question  of  the  afforestation  and 
beautifying  generally  of  the  bare  hills  surrounding  Russia’s  new 
naval  port.  He  was  also  anxious  to  find  a spot  on  the  Liao-tung 
coast  for  a sanatorium,  which  would  rival  the  summer  health- 
resorts  of  China  and  Japan. 

The  first  station  south  of  Ta-shih-ch’iao  is  Hai-shen-chai, 
a little  to  the  south-east  of  a village  of  that  name  nestling 
at  the  base  of  a hill,  for  the  western  flat  has  now  given 
place  to  hilly  ground.  The  station  lies  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Kai-chow  River,  almost  mid-way  between  the  sea  and 


LIAO  TUNG  PENINSULA 


77 


the  district  city  of  Kai-p’ing  Hsien,  which  is  concealed  by 
hills  to  the  east.  This  river,  with  its  sandy  bed  one  hundred 
yards  in  width,  becomes  during  rains  a roaring  torrent,  and  has 
on  more  than  one  occasion  swept  away  the  piles  of  sleepers 
which  were  doing  duty  for  piers.  Stones  and  rails  supported  the 
track  when  we  crossed  the  river ; but  a five-arched  bridge  with 
granite  piers  was  in  process  of  construction.  Between  the  Kai- 
chow  River  and  Hsiung-yao,  a distance  of  twenty  miles,  two 
streams  rising  in  the  hills  to  the  east  cross  the  track  on  their 
way  to  the  west  coast.  The  five-arched  stone  bridges  over 
these  were  completed,  and  the  banks  of  the  streams  above  the 
bridges  were  carefully  paved  with  stone  to  keep  the  floods 
within  bounds.  Hsiung-yao,  at  one  time  the  seat  of  a Depart- 
ment, and  later  of  a District,  Magistrate,  as  well  as  the  head- 
quarters of  a Deputy-Lieutenant  Military  Governor,  afterwards 
transferred  to  Chin-chou  T’ing,  is  a small  walled  town  a mile 
to  the  west  of  the  railway.  Its  inhabitants  are  mostly  Banner- 
men,  and  its  defences  are  in  charge  of  a Manchu  Military 
Commandant  of  the  second  class  (Fang  Shou  Yu).  The  town 
lies  in  a plain  stretching  westward  from  the  railway  to  the  sea 
and  eastward  to  low  hills  backed  by  a higher  range  running 
north  and  south.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  plain  are  a number 
of  bare,  isolated  rocks,  on  the  southernmost  of  which  perches  a 
small  pagoda.  The  run  from  the  Kai-chow  River  to  Hsiung- 
yao  occupied  one  hour  and  fifteen  minutes.  The  Hsiung-yao 
River,  which  crosses  the  track  opposite  the  town  on  its  way 
westward  to  the  sea,  has  a wide  sandy  bed,  necessitating  a long 
bridge  of  some  ten  spans,  in  course  of  construction.  This  is 
the  longest  bridge  on  the  line,  and  here  stone  and  gravel 
banking  were  being  carried  out  to  confine  the  river  to  its  bed. 
South  of  Hsiung-yao  the  hills  close  in  on  both  sides,  forcing 
the  railway  into  the  intervening  valley  and  here  and  there 
into  the  hillsides  to  the  east,  where  one  or  two  rock  scarpings 


78 


MANCHURIA 


several  hundred  yards  in  length  had  been  executed.  At  twelve 
minutes  past  noon  we  arrived  at  Hou-wa-fang-tien,  a neat 
little  station  in  the  valley,  where  we  stopped  for  ten  minutes, 
and  then  proceeded  south,  the  rails  being  now  laid  in  the 
bottom  pending  the  completion  of  a number  of  bridges  across 
gullies  in  the  hills  to  the  west.  At  one  point  in  the  valley  I 
counted  as  many  as  four  bridges  visible  at  one  time.  At 
Hou-wa-fang-tien  we  passed  a construction  train  going  south, 
laden  with  dressed  stones  to  be  used  in  bridging  a number  of 
small  streams  crossing  the  track  between  Hou-wa-fang-tien  and 
Ch’ien-wa-fang-tien  or  Nan-wa-fang-tien,  which  are  about  twenty- 
seven  miles  apart.  At  all  these  streams  stone  embanking  had 
been  carried  out  to  the  east  of  the  bridge  sites.  Half  a mile  to 
the  north  of  Nan-wa-fang-tien,  which  we  reached  at  6 p.m., 
and  where  we  remained  overnight,  a branch  line  was  being 
built  eastward  to  the  Lu-sheng  coal  mines,  three  miles  distant. 
These  mines  are  generally  known  as  the  Wa-fang-tien  coal 
mines.  Earlier  in  the  day  a construction  train  with  rails  and 
coal  had  passed  us  at  Hsiung-yao  bound  north.  Nan-wa-fang- 
tien  is  one  of  the  largest  stations  on  the  line,  with  numerous 
sidings,  engine  sheds  and  quite  a number  of  artisans’  cottages. 
Half  a mile  to  the  east  the  Russian  flag  wras  flying  over  a 
prominent  building.  I may  state  here  that  we  carried  our 
own  bedding  and  provisions;  but  the  doctor  on  our  arrival  at 
Nan-wa-fang-tien  set  out  on  a foraging  expedition,  and  soon 
returned  with  a tureen  of  hot  cabbage  soup,  to  which,  as  the 
evening  was  cold  and  wet,  we  all  did  ample  justice.  We  com- 
pleted the  repast  with  a cold  roast  fowl  and  cold  beef  provided 
by  me,  and  glasses  of  hot  tea  a la  Russe.  North  of  Nan-wa- 
fang-tien  scrub-oak  put  in  an  appearance,  an  indication  that 
we  were  passing  through  the  districts  of  sericulture  in  Southern 
Manchuria. 

We  left  Nan-wa-fang-tien  at  5.30  a.m.  on  the  11th  of  April, 


LIAO-TUNG  PENINSULA 


79 


and,  after  an  hour’s  run  past  villages  and  farmhouses  nestling 
amid  trees  as  yet  bare  of  foliage,  reached  P’u-la-tien,  the  northern 
boundary  on  the  west  side  of  the  territory  leased  to  Russia  by 
China.  The  boundary  line  passes  through  P’i-tzu-wo,  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  peninsula.  To  the  immediate  north  of 
P’u-la-tien,  where  I noticed  for  the  first  time  the  name  of  the 
station  posted  in  Russian,  preparations  were  being  made  for 
bridging  a stream  flowing  west.  South  of  Nan-wa-fang-tien 
the  country  opens  out,  and  consists  of  rolling  land  with  hill 
ranges  in  the  distance.  Fifteen  miles  south  of  P’u-la-tien  we 
struck  the  Hung-kou-ho,  a stream  also  flowing  west,  where 
extensive  banking  and  bridging  were  progressing.  Two  and  a 
half  miles  more  brought  us  to  the  station  of  San-shih-li-p’u, 
which  we  reached  at  eight  o’clock.  Passing  the  station  of  Shih- 
san-t’ai-tzu,  with  the  sea  visible  a few  miles  to  the  west,  we  crossed 
the  wide  bed  of  a stream,  which  has  to  be  bridged,  and  arrived 
at  the  station  opposite  the  city  of  Chin-chou  T’ing,  which  lies 
one  and  two-thirds  mile  to  the  west,  at  the  base  of  hills  on  the 
north  side  of  Chin-chou  Bay.  In  the  lease  of  the  territory  to 
Russia  it  was  stipulated  that  the  Chinese  should  continue  to 
exercise  jurisdiction  within  the  walls  of  this  city,  and  difficulties 
have  frequently  arisen  in  consequence  of  this  arrangement,  for  in 
the  open  the  Chinese  are  under  Russian  rule,  but  by  entering  the 
gates  they  become  amenable  to  Chinese  authority.  Chin-chou 
is  a very  large  station,  with  a short  branch  line  to  brickfields  on 
the  west  side — a concession  granted  by  the  Russian  Government 
to  the  Chinese  Eastern  Railway  Company  in  connection  with 
the  site  of  the  new  town  of  Dalny  about  to  be  built  on  the 
south  shores  of  Ta-lien-wan  *Bay . Quite  a number  of  houses 
had  already  been  built  at  the  brickfields,  and  others  were  in 
process  of  construction. ^The  city  of  Chin-chou  lies  at  the  north 
end  of  the  narrow  neck  of  land  which  separates  Ta-lien-wan  and 
Chin-chou  Bays,  and  the  [sea  is  visible  from  the  railway  on 


80 


MANCHURIA 


both  sides,  the  country  being  flat  from  sea  to  sea.  At  most  of 
the  stations  along  the  track,  and  especially  at  Chin-chou,  Chinese 
hawkers  were  busy  catering  for  passengers  : hard-boiled  eggs, 
tinned  meat,  fish  and  fruit,  fresh  pears  and  granges,  sunflower 
and  pine  seeds,  and  occasionally  aerated  waters  were  to  be  had. 
On  my  return  journey  from  Port  Arthur  reliefs  for  the  military 
guards  along  the  line  travelled  by  the  same  train,  and  it  was  very 
interesting  to  watch  the  way  in  which  these  soldiers  fraternised 
with  the  Chinese  employes  of  the  railway : they  shook  hands 
cordially  and  slapped  each  other  on  the  back  as  if  they  had 
been  life-long  acquaintances.  The  friendship  did  not  appear  to 
be  always  disinterested,  however,  for  the  soldier  not  unfrequently 
produced  an  empty  vodka  bottle  and  a coin,  both  of  which  were 
slipped  into  the  hands  of  the  Chinese  friend,  who  might  be  seen 
speeding  hot  foot  to  the  nearest  dram  shop  or  itinerant  spirit 
vendor.  A number  of  small  boys  seemed  always  to  be  on  the 
outlook  for  errands  of  this  description,  and  were  not  unfrequently 
rewarded  with  the  offer  of  the  dregs,  which  were  usually  declined, 
the  wage  for  their  labour  being  doubtless  recouped  by  the 
difference  between  the  actual  cost  and  the  price  charged  to  the 
buyer.  These  soldiers  took  every  possible  opportunity  of  eating 
and  drinking,  and  if  they  were  not  devouring  loaves  of  bread, 
they  were  emptying  bottles  without  the  intermediary  of  glasses. 
One  thing  must  be  said  for  the  Russian  soldier : his  pay  may  be 
small,  but  his  generosity  is  unbounded.  I have  seen  him  part 
with  his  loaf  to  a Chinese  beggar — who  was  well  represented 
along  the  line — and  appear  delighted  that  the  meal  was  appre- 
ciated. Many  of  the  soldiers  had  a smattering  of  Chinese,  and 
one  man — it  was  at  the  end  of  the  journey  and  after  numerous 
refreshers — endeavoured  to  harangue  a crowd  in  their  own 
tongue.  His  speech  created  considerable  hilarity  among  his 
audience,  and  he  seemed  gratified  at  his  success. 

At  Ta-fang-shen,  four  miles  south  of  Chin-chou,  a branch 


(l)  NARROW  ENTRANCE 


(2)  EAST  AND  WEST  BAYS 


(3)  DOCK 


PORT  ARTHUR 


LIAO-TUNG  PENINSULA 


81 


leaves  the  main  line  and  goes  east,  skirting  the  southern  shore 
of  an  arm  of  the  sea  forming  the  northern  part  of  Ta-lien-wan 
Bay,  to  the  village  of  Ta-lien-wan,  where  a pier  has  been  built 
for  the  accommodation  of  steamers  carrying  materials  for  the 
railway.  Ta-lien-wan  Bay  is  free  of  ice  during  the  winter 
months,  so  that  materials  can  be  landed  there  when  the  port  of 
Newchwang  is  closed.  The  branch  line  is  about  three  miles  in 
length.  On  leaving  the  narrow  neck  of  land  at  Ta-fang-shen 
the  main  line,  after  skirting  the  western  end  of  the  middle  arm 
of  the  sea  in  Ta-lien-wan  Bay,  goes  west  by  south  for  a distance 
of  ten  miles  to  the  station  of  Nan-san-shih-li-p’u,  to  the  south 
of  which  a branch  ten  miles  long  was  being  constructed  eastward 
to  the  new  port  of  Dalny  in  the  south  of  the  bay.  To  the 
west  and  south  of  the  bay  the  country  is  broken  and  hilly,  and 
the  track  has  been  carried  along  the  western  shore,  in  one  or 
two  places  being  built  upon  the  sandy  beach  within  a few  yards 
of  the  sea,  whence  it  ultimately  crosses  the  south  of  the  penin- 
sula and  descends  into  Port  Arthur,  which  we  reached  at  3.30 
p.m.  on  the  11th  of  April. 

Port  Arthur,  until  little  more  than  two  years  ago  China’s 
greatest  naval  station  in  the  north,  is  an  oval  inlet  of  the  sea 
some  two  miles  long  from  east  to  west  and  a mile  from  north  to 
south,  surrounded  by  high  hills,  and  entered  on  the  south  side 
by  a narrow  channel  guarded  at  the  south  end  by  a couple  of 
reefs,  and  protected  against  storms  by  a spit  of  land  which  runs 
diagonally  across  its  northern  end.  A line  drawn  from  this 
channel  to  the  extreme  west  of  the  town,  which  occupies  the 
face  of  the  hills  on  the  north-east  side  of  the  inlet,  divides  the 
latter  into  two  unequal  parts,  known  respectively  as  East  and 
West  Bays.  The  former  is  small,  and  has  accommodation  for 
a very  limited  number  of  vessels,  while  the  latter  is  much 
larger,  but  shallow  and  unnavigable.  At  the  time  of  my  visit 
there  were  two  dredgers  in  the  harbour,  and  I was  informed 


82 


MANCHURIA 


that  West  Bay  was  to  be  deepened  throughout  and  set  apart 
for  a man-of-war  anchorage,  and  that  new  Government  offices 
were  to  be  built  on  the  north-west  side  of  the  inlet  overlooking 
West  Bay.  The  latter  are  very  much  needed,  for  at  present 
they  are  scattered  about  the  town,  which  consists  of  a collection 
of  heterogeneous  buildings,  setting  all  sanitary  laws  at  defiance, 
with  streets  and  alleys  in  the  worst  possible  condition.  I was 
very  much  surprised  at  the  neglect  of  these  thoroughfares,  but 
I had  not  then  seen  the  streets  of  the  principal  cities  of  Eastern 
Siberia.  To  the  east  of  the  town  are  the  arsenal  and  Govern- 
ment workshops  and  stores,  and  on  the  opposite  side  of  East 
Bay  there  is  a dock  of  considerable  size.  The  railway  enters 
the  town  at  the  extreme  west  end,  and  at  the  terminus  there  is 
a row  of  sheds  for  locomotives.  The  red-brick  station  was  all 
but  completed,  and  on  high  ground  to  the  east  of  the  terminus 
were  the  offices  and  residences  of  the  officials  of  the  Chinese 
Eastern  Railway — the  most  imposing  buildings  in  the  town. 
Between  the  railway  and  higher  ground  to  the  west  there  is  a 
large  expanse  of  marshy  ground  which  used  to  be  flooded  at 
high  tide,  but  is  now  separated  from  the  sea  by  a dam.  The 
whole  of  this  space,  many  acres  in  extent,  is  to  be  filled  in  and 
utilised.  There  is  a branch  of  the  Russo-Chinese  Bank,  besides 
several  foreign  stores,  in  the  town.  The  hills  overlooking  the 
entrance  channel  bristled  with  forts,  as  also  the  spit  of  land 
above  referred  to,  and  I was  informed  that  there  are  many  more 
batteries  on  the  hills  than  meet  the  eye,  and  that  the  place  is 
impregnable  ; but  I assured  my  Russian  informants  that  I was 
no  judge  of  these  matters. 

From  Port  Arthur  I wished  to  make  a trip  to  the  site  of 
the  projected  new  town  of  Dalny  in  the  south  of  Ta-lien-wan 
Bay,  the  laying  out  of  which  is  in  the  hands  of  the  railway 
company,  and  I called  upon  the  chief  engineer  at  Port  Arthur 
with  a view  of  getting  a passage  in  the  railway  launch  which 


> 


LIAO  TUNG  PENINSULA 


83 


runs  between  these  two  places.  He  received  me  courteously, 
but  regretted  that  owing  to  bad  weather  the  launch  was  not 
running  with  regularity,  and  he  could  not  say  when  the  vessel 
would  again  leave  Port  Arthur.  Under  the  circumstances  I 
resolved  to  leave  next  morning  for  Newchwang,  and  he  readily 
acceded  to  my  request  for  a passage  by  train,  and  added  that 
the  car  would  be  at  my  disposal  from  Newchwang  northwards 
to  'Tieh-ling. 

I learned  from  other  sources  what  was  being  done  at  Dalny. 
A plan  of  the  streets,  etc.,  of  the  town  had  been  drawn  up  and 
submitted  for  the  approval  of  the  Russian  Minister  of  Finance, 
to  whom  the  railway  company  is  responsible ; waterworks  and 
electric  lighting  were  well  in  hand  ; residences  had  been  built 
for  the  engineers ; and  a large  hotel  was  almost  completed.  The 
lots  would  in  due  course  be  put  up  to  public  auction  at  reserved 
prices  contingent  on  the  expenses  incurred  by  the  railway  com- 
pany, and  the  highest  bidder,  no  matter  what  the  nationality* 
would  be  declared  the  buyer  or  lessee. 

I left  Port  Arthur  next  morning  at  6.50  o'clock,  stayed 
overnight  at  Nan-wa-fang-tien,  and  arrived  at  Newchwang  at 
6 p.m.  on  the  13th  of  April.  It  would  be  unfair  in  the  present 
incomplete  state  of  the  line  to  pass  judgment  upon  it,  even 
were  I competent  to  do  so ; but  this  much  I think  I may  safely 
say.  Although  stone  ballast  was  being  prepared  where  rock 
cuttings  had  been  found  necessary,  the  line  throughout  is 
practically  unballasted  ; the  bridging,  as  we  have  seen,  is  far 
from  complete,  and  I am  of  opinion  that  at  least  two  years 
must  elapse  before  the  line  will  be  able  to  bear  heavy  and 
regular  traffic.  With  regard  to  the  materials,  I had  better 
quote  the  statement  of  an  expert : “ The  rails  weigh  64  lb. 
per  yard  and  are  in  35-feet  lengths.  The  joints  are  peculiar, 
being  made  with  plain  angle  fishes  on  the  inner  side  and  deep 
angle  fishes  on  the  external  side.  The  lower  portion  of  the 


84 


MANCHURIA 


deep  fish  plate  is  greatly  cut  away,  owing  to  the  sleepers  being 
spaced  very  close  at  the  joints,  so  as  to  carry  a bearing  plate 
under  the  fish  plate  end.  The  bearing  plates  are  punched  for 
one  single-head  dogspike  on  the  inside,  and  two  double-head 
spikes  on  the  outside,  one  of  these  passing  through  a notch  in 
the  fishplate.  The  fishes  are  held  by  four  bolts,  with  cup-heads 
and  hexagon  nuts,  passing  through  pear-shaped  holes,  the  two 
minor  bolts  being  screwed  up  from  the  outside,  the  other  ones 
from  the  inside.  The  other  sleepers  are  secured  by  one  spike 
only.” 

The  sleepers  are,  I was  informed,  spaced  30  in.  centre  to 
centre,  but  in  practice  I found  them  much  closer.  The  size  is 
8 ft.  2 in.  by  9 in.  by  6 in.,  but  the  length,  I was  told,  should 
be  8 ft.  9 in.,  the  shorter  lengths  being  bought  hurriedly  of  a 
size  in  use  on  the  Japanese  lines.  Most  of  the  sleepers  are  of 
Japanese  timber.  They  are  credited  with  being  good  stuff,  but 
I cannot  say  they  impressed  me  favourably.  Far  too  great  an 
allowance  in  the  “ wane  ” had  been  permitted,  and  scarcely  any 
I saw  on  the  line  actually  laid  were  sound  throughout,  many 
shelling  away  in  their  lateral  plane,  while  still  more  had  broken 
or  split  from  the  dog-spikes  to  half,  three-quarters  and  some- 
times their  entire  length,  and  only  needed  the  passage  of  a few 
trains  to  fall  apart. 

The  engines  (compound  ^Baldwin  locomotives,  built  at 
Philadelphia)  weigh  85  to  90  tons  (a  heavy  engine  for  the 
weight  per  yard  of  rail  adopted  on  this  line).  The  cylinders 
are  13  in.  and  22  in.,  driving  wheels  52  in.,  and  the  engines 
have  eight  wheels,  coupled  with  a leading  two- wheeled  bogie. 

The  scenery  in  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula  is  pretty  among 
the  hills  south  of  Hsiung-yao,  although  there  is  little  wood, 
and  from  the  railway  there  is  a charming  view  of  Ta-lien-wan 
Bay  and  of  the  sea  dotted  with  islands  in  the  extreme  south- 
west. I was  too  early  to  see  signs  of  cultivation,  for,  although 


LIAO  TUNG  PENINSULA 


85 


ploughing  was  proceeding,  the  streams  were  covered  in  the 
morning  with  thin  films  of  ice. 

Sir  D.  Mackenzie  Wallace,  in  his  excellent  book  on  Russia, 
says : “ In  conveying  passengers  at  the  rate  of  from  fifteen 
to  thirty  miles  an  hour  the  railway  companies  do  at  least  all 
that  they  promise;  but  in  one  very  important  respect  they 
do  not  strictly  fulfil  their  engagements.  The  traveller  takes 
a ticket  for  a certain  town,  and,  on  arriving  at  what  he  imagines 
to  be  his  destination,  he  may  find  merely  a railway  station 
surrounded  by  fields.  He  finds,  to  his  disappointment,  that 
the  station  is  by  no  means  identical  with  the  town  bearing 
the  same  name,  and  that  the  railway  has  fallen  several  miles 
short  of  fulfilling  the  bargain  as  he  understood  the  terms  of 
the  contract.  Indeed,  it  might  almost  be  said  that,  as  a general 
rule,  railways  in  Russia,  like  camel-drivers  in  certain  Eastern 
countries,  studiously  avoid  the  towns.  This  seems  at  first  a 
strange  fact.  It  is  possible  to  conceive  that  the  Bedouin  is 
so  enamoured  of  tent  life  and  nomadic  habits  that  he  shuns  a 
town  as  he  would  a man -trap ; but  surely  civil  engineers  and 
railway  contractors  have  no  such  dread  of  brick  and  mortar. 
The  true  reason,  I suspect,  is  that  land  within  or  immediately 
without  the  municipal  barrier  is  relatively  dear,  and  that  the 
railways,  being  completely  beyond  the  invigorating  influence 
of  healthy  competition,  can  afford  to  look  upon  the  comfort 
and  convenience  of  passengers  as  a secondary  consideration.” 
As  in  Russia,  so  in  Manchuria : the  railway  avoids  the  most 
important  towns,  but  the  reason  is  quite  different,  and  is 
capable  of  easy  explanation.  One  of  the  articles  of  the  agree- 
ment entered  into  between  the  Chinese  Government  and  the 
Russo-Chinese  Bank  for  the  construction  of  the  Manchurian 
railway  stipulates  that,  in  laying  down  the  track,  cemeteries, 
villages  and  towns  must  be  avoided. 

I have  already  explained  how  my  journey  northwards 


86 


MANCHURIA 


through  Manchuria  was  blocked  on  my  return  to  Newchwang, 
and  I accordingly  left  that  port  by  steamer  on  the  17th  and 
reached  Shanghai  on  the  21st  of  April,  where  I ascertained 
that  the  Kiukiang , a British  steamer  belonging  to  the  China 
Navigation  Company,  was  about  to  sail  for  Vladivostock  by 
way  of  Tientsin,  where  she  was  to  ship  coolies  for  work  on  the 
Manchurian  railway  in  the  provinces  of  Kirin  and  Hei-lung- 
chiang.  We  took  passage  by  her,  and,  leaving  Shanghai  on 
the  morning  of  the  27th,  anchored  outside  the  Taku  bar  on 
the  30th.  Owing  to  a dispute  as  to  the  number  of  railway 
coolies  the  steamer  could  accommodate,  the  Tientsin  agent  of 
the  steamer  asserting  that  there  was  room  for  a thousand, 
while  a Russian  doctor  who  boarded  and  measured  the  vessel 
maintained  that  there  was  space  for  only  four  hundred  and 
fifty,  we  did  not  sail  for  Vladivostock  until  daylight  on  the  4th 
of  May,  the  number  of  coolies  certified  by  the  Russian  doctor 
and  the  doctor  himself  having  been  received  on  board  the 
previous  evening. 

The  town  of  Vladivostock,  in  lat.  43°  6'  51"  N.  and  long. 
131°  52f  44"  E.,  lies  at  the  south  of  the  peninsula  between 
Ussuri  and  Amur  Bays.  It  is  approached  through  the  Eastern 
Bosporus  Strait  (Hamelin  Strait),  which  divides  the  peninsula 
from  a group  of  islands  to  the  south.  At  the  south-west  end  of 
the  peninsula  a channel  with  a lighthouse  and  signal  station 
on  a small  island  at  its  entrance  leads  northwards  from  the 
strait  to  a magnificent  land-locked  harbour  stretching  for 
miles  to  the  eastward  and  known  as  Zolotoi  Rog — “ the  Golden 
Horn”.  Ascending  the  channel  we  passed  guns  mounted  on 
the  hills  on  both  sides,  and  on  the  west,  as  the  Golden  Horn 
is  neared,  quite  a number  of  suburban  residences  and  a pretty 
little  church.  Higher  up  we  were  ordered  to  anchor  at  the 
quarantine  station  and  were  boarded  by  the  health  officer; 
but  as  the  coolies  were  in  charge  of  a Russian  doctor  no 


RUSSIAN  PRIMORSK 


87 


examination  was  held,  and  the  captain  was  directed  to  proceed 
to  the  wharf  of  the  Chinese  Eastern  Railway  Company  early 
next  morning  and  discharge  his  living  freight.  It  was  now' 
evening,  and  the  electric  and  other  lights  began  to  peep  out 
from  the  hillsides  ahead,  showing  the  position  and  extent  of 
the  town  of  Vladivostock,  which,  facing  south,  clings  to  the 
lower  face  of  the  hills  bounding  the  Golden  Horn  on  the  north 
from  Amur  Bay*  to  the  eastern  end  of  the  Horn.  From  a 
distance  it  looked  like  Hong-Kong ; but  a closer  inspection 
revealed  an  immense  difference.  Next  morning,  the  10th  of 
May,  we  ran  alongside  the  wharf  on  the  opposite  or  west 
side  of  the  channel  which  is  connected  by  rail  with  Vladivostock, 
and,  with  the  assistance  of  half  a dozen  soldiers,  the  coolies,  to 
all  appearances  content  with  their  lot,  were  counted  like  so 
many  sheep,  landed,  and  entrained  with  others  who  had  arrived 
the  same  morning  in  a larger  British  steamer,  the  Glenshiel , 
in  covered  trucks  for  conveyance  to  Nikolsk  and  across  the 
Manchurian  frontier.  Round  loaves  of  bread  packed  in  bags, 
which  had  been  piled  alongside  the  track,  were  thrown  into 
the  trucks  and  scrambled  for  by  the  passengers,  and  off'  steamed 
the  train.  The  coolies  informed  me  that  they  had  no  fixed 
daily  or  monthly  wage,  that  they  were  to  work  by  the  piece, 
and  that  they  were  to  receive  one  tiao  (100  large  copper  cash) 
for  raising  a bank  of  earth  ten  Chinese  feet  square  and  one 
foot  in  depth.  As  these  men  were  engaged  in  Tientsin,  I 
presume  that  the  tiao  in  which  they  were  to  be  paid  is  the 
tiao  of  Northern  China,  for  in  Manchuria  the  tiao  has  quite  a 
different  value.  In  Newchwang,  for  example,  it  is  160  large 
cash,  and  from  five  to  six  go  to  the  Mexican  dollar,  whereas  in 
Kirin  the  latter  is  worth  only  two.  In  other  words,  the  tiao 
varies  in  cash  value  in  different  parts  of  Manchuria. 

After  discharging  the  coolies  our  steamer  proceeded  to  the 
anchorage  for  merchant  vessels,  which  is  situated  in  the  western 


88 


MANCHURIA 


end  of  the  Golden  Horn,  to  land  her  cargo  of  brick-tea,  flour, 
piece  goods,  ironware  and  other  miscellaneous  articles,  and, 
through  the  kindness  of  Messrs.  Clarkson  & Co.,  an  American 
Arm  and  agents  for  the  steamer,  we  were  soon  installed  in  fairly 
comfortable  quarters  in  the  Hotel  Moscow.  These,  however, 
were  not  procured  without  a little  struggle,  for  the  proprietor 
of  the  hotel  at  first  met  us  with  the  word  “Niet”  which  means 
“No,”  “No  room,”  “Nothing,”  “Not”;  but  the  gentleman  who 
accompanied  me  advised  me  to  leave  the  matter  with  him  and 
it  would  be  all  right.  It  was  all  right  the  same  afternoon,  and 
I soon  learned  that  “Niet”  in  Russia  does  not  necessarily  mean 
“No,”  and  that  ways  and  means  can  usually  be  found  to  convert 
the  negative  into  an  affirmative.  In  England  one  is  apt  to 
take  “No”  seriously  and  as  final ; but  in  Russia  we  soon  learned 
to  receive  “Niet”  with  a smile. 

Hearing  that  the  mail  steamer  on  the  Amur  would  not 
start  from  Habarovsk  until  the  17th  of  May,  that  the  hotel 
accommodation  in  that  town  was  very  poor,  and  that  steamer 
tickets  could  not  be  procured  until  the  vessel  was  on  the  point 
of  sailing,  we  resolved  to  stay  in  Vladivostock  until  the  morning 
of  the  14th,  and  thus  leave  a clear  day  and  a half  at  Habarovsk 
to  arrange  our  passage  westwards  across  Asia.  The  greater 
part  of  Vladivostock  is  built  of  wood,  but  many  of  the  more 
recent  buildings  are  of  brick,  such  as  the  splendid  lofty  blocks 
of  Messrs.  Kunst  & Albers,  the  great  German  bankers  and 
storekeepers  of  Eastern  Siberia.  I say  German  advisedly,  for 
one  of  the  partners  is,  I understand,  a naturalised  Russian.  I 
found  this  firm  most  obliging,  and,  although  I was  a perfect 
stranger,  I was  most  kindly  favoured  with  a letter  of  introduction 
to  their  agent  in  Habarovsk,  praying  him  to  afford  me  every 
assistance  in  his  power. 

A short  ascent  from  the  Custom  House  through  the  bazaar 
or  market-place,  where  fruits  and  vegetables  were  exposed  for 


RUSSIAN  PRIMORSK 


89 


sale,  principally  by  Chinese,  leads  to  the  main  street  of  Vladi- 
vostock.  It  runs  east  and  west,  west  through  the  business 
quarter  and  across  the  railway  track  to  Amur  Bay,  and  east 
past  Government  buildings.  Between  the  street  and  the  sea, 
and  on  rising  ground,  are  the  residence  of  the  Commandant  of 
the  port,  with  the  Admiralty  Gardens  below,  the  Museum  of 
the  Geographical  Society,  the  residence  of  the  Governor  of  the 
Primorsk,  the  offices  of  the  Commandant,  a beautiful  granite 
monument  surmounted  by  a bronze  globe,  on  which  perches 
an  eagle  with  outspread  wings,  to  the  memory  of  Admiral 
Nevelski  for  his  voyages  in  the  “ fifties  Let  into  the  pillar 
and  facing  the  Golden  Horn  is  a bust  of  the  gallant  admiral ; 
on  the  opposite  side  is  the  stern  of  the  transport  Baikal  tossed 
on  a stormy  sea,  all  worked  in  metal ; and  on  the  other  two 
sides  are  tablets  recording  his  deeds.  Further  east  are  the 
Naval  Club  and  Library,  the  new  Admiralty  buildings,  the  Dock, 
and  the  Naval  Barracks  and  Hospital.  The  most  prominent 
public  buildings  on  the  north  side  of  the  street  are  the  Post 
and  Telegraph  Office,  the  offices  of  the  Municipal  Council  and 
the  Cathedral  of  the  Holy  Virgin.  To  the  north  and  south  of 
this  street,  in  the  western  quarter  of  the  town,  are  merchant 
houses,  banks  and  the  railway  station.  But  what  surprises  one 
in  Vladivostock  is  the  condition  of  the  streets.  These  are  wide 
enough,  and  in  places  adorned  with  rows  of  trees,  but  the  narrow 
wooden  pavements,  here  and  there  dilapidated,  afford  excellent 
pitfalls  for  unwary  foot  passengers,  and  as  you  are  driven  along 
the  main  street  at  full  speed  by  the  izvoshchik , with  his  miniature 
broad-brimmed  silk  top  hat  and  velvet  tunic,  you  naturally 
grasp  the  side  of  the  carriage  to  avoid  being  thrown  out,  and 
one  day,  driving  in  one  of  the  principal  streets,  I was  positively 
thankful  that  I had  escaped  destruction.  One  monument  I 
have  omitted  to  mention.  In  the  quiet  thoroughfare  leading 
from  the  Government  landing-stage  to  the  main  street  is  a 


90 


MANCHURIA 


gaily  painted  and  gilded  solid  archway,  erected  for  the  passage 
of  the  present  Czar  (then  Czarevitch)  when  he  visited  Siberia  in 
1891.  On  a conical  hill  behind  the  town  rises  a small  red-brick 
tower — the  fire-signal  station — where,  owing  to  the  inflammable 
nature  of  the  majority  of  the  buildings,  careful  watch  is  always 
kept.  From  this  hill  the  view  of  the  Golden  Horn  is  magnificent. 
Below  lies  the  merchant  shipping,  and  away  to  the  east  stretches 
a fine  expanse  of  water,  in  which  I counted  as  many  as  thirty 
red  iron  buoys  for  mooring  the  Russian  fleet,  and  in  the  middle 
of  the  Horn  there  is  a large  floating  dock.  But  all  this  is  closed 
by  ice  from  November  to  March,  when  entrance  and  exit  can 
only  be  had  by  means  of  an  ice-breaker. 

The  population  of  Vladivostock,  exclusive  of  the  military 
and  naval  forces,  is  said  to  amount  to  30,000,  and  consists  of 
Russians,  Chinese,  Coreans  and  Japanese.  I do  not  enumerate 
the  sprinkling  of  Germans,  Americans,  British  and  others,  who 
are  practically  a mere  handful  of  the  populace.  The  Chinese 
are  shopkeepers,  artisans,  domestic  servants,  boatmen  and 
labourers,  and  as  artisans  they  are,  owing  to  their  steady  habits, 
much  preferred  to  the  Russians.  The  Coreans  are  mostly  dock- 
labourers  engaged  in  loading  and  discharging  merchant  vessels, 
while  the  Japanese  are  shopkeepers,  clerks  and  labourers.  I 
was  told  that  the  military  forces  in  the  Primorsk  numbered 
from  60,000  to  80,000 ; but  this  was  later  discounted  by  a 
Russian  officer  to  54,000  men  with  coming  drafts  of  recruits. 
The  Chinese  in  their  own  country  among  themselves  and  in 
foreign  employ  undoubtedly  possess  and  practise  a code  of 
manners  however  formal  it  may  be ; but  in  the  towns  of  Eastern 
Siberia,  where  they  are  kissed  one  day  and  kicked  the  next,  it 
is  hardly  surprising  that  they  lose  their  manners  and  become 
rude  and  independent.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  impression  which 
they  made  upon  me,  and  I was  informed  by  a gentleman  of 
considerable  experience  that,  as  domestic  servants,  they  would 


(i)  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  TOWN 
(2)  THE  GOLDEN  HORN 
(3)  MONUMENT  TO  ADMIRAL  NEVELSKI 


I 


VLADIVOSTOK 


RUSSIAN  PRIMORSK  91 

suddenly  leave  their  employment  without  any  warning  what- 
ever. 

The  next  step  on  our  homeward  journey  was  to  reach  the 
Amur,  and  this  was  easily  accomplished  by  taking  train  from 
Vladivostock  to  Habarovsk,  a distance  of  716  versts,  or  about 
477  miles.  Two  passenger  trains  leave  Vladivostock  daily,  the 
mail  train  carrying  mails  and  passengers  only  in  the  morning, 
the  other  a mixed  train  in  the  afternoon.  We  left  on  the 
morning  of  the  14th  of  May,  and  arrived  at  the  Habarovsk 
station  early  in  the  afternoon  of  the  following  day.  The 
actual  time  occupied  on  the  trip  was  twenty-seven  hours  and 
fifty-five  minutes,  including  stoppages  of  three  hours  and  fifty- 
seven  minutes,  an  average  running  speed  of  thirty  versts,  or 
twenty  miles  an  hour.  Everything  on  this  section  of  the 
Trans-Siberian  Railway  was  carried  out  with  due  precision : 
there  was  a buffet-car  on  the  train,  which  was  made  up  of  most 
comfortable  corridor  carriages  of  four  classes,  costing  roubles 
17*00,  10*20,  6*80  and  5*41  per  ticket  according  to  class ; at 
every  station  a bell  hangs  at  the  main  entrance,  and  immedi- 
ately the  train  arrives  the  bell  is  rung  once,  a few  minutes 
afterwards  (the  interval  being  dependent  on  the  length  of  the 
stoppage,  which  is  carefully  marked  on  the  time-table  between 
the  times  of  arrival  and  departure)  it  is  rung  a second  time  as 
a warning  to  passengers  to  take  their  seats,  and  two  or  three 
minutes  afterwards  the  third  bell  goes,  the  guard  blows  his 
whistle,  the  engine  replies,  he  blows  a second  time,  the  engine 
replies  with  a longer  blast  and  the  train  is  off.  This  system 
prevails  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Siberian  Railway.  Al- 
though there  was  a buffet-car  on  the  train  at  which  meals 
could  be  had  a la  Russe  or  a la  carte , many  passengers  preferred, 
doubtless  for  economy’s  sake,  to  satisfy  themselves  at  the  station 
refreshment-rooms,  of  which,  including  Vladivostock  and  Haba- 
rovsk, there  are  eleven  along  this  section  of  the  line.  The 


92 


MANCHURIA 


stoppages  ranged  from  two  to  fourteen  minutes,  the  longer 
stoppages  occurring  at  the  refreshment  stations.  The  Vladi- 
vostock-Habarovsk  Railway,  which  is  a single  line  throughout,  is 
divided  into  two  sections,  known  respectively  as  the  South  and 
North  Ussuri.  The  present  Czar  cut  the  first  sod  of  the  former, 
which  runs  north  from  Vladivostock  for  382  versts,  on  the  31st 
of  May,  1891,  and  it  was  opened  to  traffic  on  the  13th  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1896.  The  cost  of  the  permanent  way  was  19,117,229 
and  the  rolling  stock  1,466,280  roubles,  a total  of  20,583,509 
or  53,884  roubles  per  verst — over  i?8,000  per  mile.  The 
country  around  Vladivostock  is  hilly  and  wooded,  with  little 
cultivation,  and  it  was  only  after  we  had  rounded  Amur  Bay 
and  approached  Nikolsk  or  Nikolskoe  (102  versts)  that  signs  of 
tillage  became  apparent.  Here  Russian  peasants  were  ploughing 
with  teams  of  oxen  and  ponies,  but  the  farmhouses,  if  I may 
call  them  so,  were  wretched  hovels,  much  worse  than  Chinese. 
The  soil  was  a black  loam,  said  to  be  well  adapted  to  wheat 
cultivation,  and  small  flour  windmills  were  dotted  about.  The 
Government  are  giving  every  encouragement  to  emigrants  from 
Russia  to  settle  in  the  Ussuri  region ; but  we  found  later  that 
many  of  our  fellow-passengers  on  the  Amur  were  immigrants  who 
had  left  their  settlements  in  disgust,  so  that  the  attempt  can 
hardly  be  called  an  unqualified  success. 

The  town  of  Nikolsk  lies  half  a mile  to  the  west  of  the 
railway,  and  presented  a very  imposing  appearance  in  the  dis- 
tance. The  station,  at  any  rate,  was  a scene  of  considerable 
bustle,  Chinese,  Coreans  and  Russians  jostling  one  another  on 
the  platform.  It  is  the  junction  of  the  South  Ussuri  and 
Manchurian  lines,  and  the  latter  runs  for  a couple  of  miles 
parallel  to  the  track  of  the  former  before  it  goes  west  to  the 
Manchurian  frontier,  110  versts  distant.  The  Manchurian  line 
was  open  for  passenger  traffic  for  ninety-one  versts  as  far  as 
Grodekovo,  named  after  the  present  Governor- General  of  the 


RUSSIAN  PRIMORSK 


93 


three  Trans-Baikal  Provinces,  and  for  construction  trains  for 
another  fifty  versts.  The  total  cost  of  the  line  from  Nikolsk  to 
the  frontier  is  placed  at  8,046,867  and  811,120  roubles  for 
permanent  way  and  rolling  stock  respectively.  I may  say  here 
that  many  of  the  stations  on  the  Ussuri  line  are  named  after 
prominent  engineers  and  other  officials.  North  of  Nikolsk  the 
country  is  well  wooded  with  birch  and  scrub-oak.  Further 
north  the  track  lies  over  low  ground  liable  to  inundation. 
This  country  lies  to  the  east  of  Lake  Hinka  (called  by  the 
Russians  Hanka),  the  northern  part  of  which  belongs  to  China, 
the  southern  and  much  larger  part  to  Russia.  There  are  two 
important  bridges  on  the  South  Ussuri  line — the  four-spanned 
iron  bridge,  252  feet  long,  across  the  Lefu,  156  versts  from 
Vladivostock,  and  the  large  three-spanned  iron  girder  bridge, 
780  feet  long,  across  the  river  Ussuri,  after  which  the  railway  is 
named.  The  latter  is  328  versts  from  Vladivostock,  and  the 
station  of  Ussuri  lies  one  verst  to  the  south  of  the  river.  At 
verst  382  from  Vladivostock  we  entered  on  the  North  Ussuri 
line,  and  at  verst  387  reached  Iman,  a station  three  versts  south 
of  the  Iman  River,  a tributary  of  the  Ussuri.  The  Iman  River 
has  sufficient  depth  of  water  to  be  navigated  by  steamers. 
Goods  from  Vladivostock,  such  as  kerosene,  etc.,  intended  for 
the  Amur  regions  are  landed  here,  and  carried  down  the  Iman 
and  Ussuri  at  rates  cheaper  than  by  rail  to  Habarovsk,  and 
much  of  the  railway  material  and  plant  for  the  Trans-Baikal 
section  of  the  Siberian  Railway  came  this  way.  The  girder 
bridge  across  the  Iman  measures  840  feet.  The  North  Ussuri 
line  was  begun  on  the  15th  of  July,  1894,  and  opened  to  traffic 
on  the  13th  of  November,  1897.  Including  the  extension  from 
the  Habarovsk  station  to  the  Amur,  a distance  of  five  versts,  its 
total  length  is  339  versts.  The  cost  of  the  permanent  way  and 
rolling  stock  was  20,365,033  and  2,093,846  roubles  respectively. 
The  Bikin  River,  an  important  tributary  of  the  Ussuri,  is 


94 


MANCHURIA 


crossed  at  verst  495  by  an  iron  girder  bridge  of  two  spans 
measuring  560  feet  in  length,  and  three  versts  to  the  north  of 
the  river  is  the  station  of  Bikin.  Here  the  track  passes  through 
a well- wooded  country,  birch  and  pine  predominating,  with 
evidences  of  recent  forest  fires.  Wild  yellow  flowers  were 
peeping  out  from  the  underwood,  and  mistletoe  was  growing 
luxuriantly  high  up  in  the  birches ; but  there  was  hardly  a sign 
of  bird  life.  At  verst  638  from  Vladivostock  we  crossed  the  Khor 
River,  another  tributary  of  the  Ussuri,  by  an  iron  girder  bridge 
of  four  spans,  measuring  280  feet  in  length.  Wherever  the 
railway  passes  through  forest,  split  logs  of  birch  and  pine  were 
stacked  alongside  the  line  for  consumption  on  the  locomotives, 
which  are  all  wood  burners.  Coal  of  an  inferior  quality  is 
found  to  the  north  of  Vladivostock,  and  I was  informed  that  it 
is  being  tried  on  the  part  of  the  Nikolsk-Manchurian  line  now- 
open  to  traffic.  The  track,  which  since  the  passage  of  the 
Ussuri,  had  more  or  less  closely  followed  the  right  bank  of  that 
river,  takes  a curve  east  and  wrest  over  the  plain  crossed  by  the 
Khor  and  Kiya  Rivers  on  their  way  to  the  Ussuri  for  a distance 
of  about  fifty  versts,  when  it  again  approaches  and  follows  it  to 
its  junction  with  the  Amur.  The  Kiya  is  crossed  by  an  iron 
bridge  of  four  spans,  840  feet  long.  At  verst  679,  or  nineteen 
versts  from  the  station  of  Habarovsk,  a branch  line  six  and  a 
half  versts  long  leaves  Krasnaia-Retchka  and  goes  west  to  the 
Ussuri  for  the  convenience  of  the  Chinese  Eastern  Railway 
Company.  Material  for  the  Trans -Manchurian  railway  is  thus 
carried  to  the  Ussuri,  whence  it  finds  its  way  by  steamer  and 
barge  to  the  Amur  and  up  the  Sungari  to  Harbin.  Soon  after 
leaving  Krasnaia-Retchka  we  caught  sight  of  the  town  of 
Habarovsk  to  the  west  and  the  Amur  beyond,  and  we  steamed 
into  the  station  at  schedule  time,  only  to  find  that  we  had  still 
a three  versts  drive  to  reach  the  town.  Piling  our  baggage  on 
a wooden  skeleton  framework  on  four  wheels,  wre  got  into 


(2)  STATION  ON  LINE 


(3)  BRIDGE  ON  LINE 

THE  USSURI  RAILWAY 


RUSSIAN  PRIMORSK 


95 


another  open  carriage  and  drove  to  the  house  of  Messrs.  Kunst 
& Albers.  At  my  request  Mr.  Prelle,  the  manager,  who  was 
kindness  itself,  sent  one  of  his  Russian  employes  with  us  to  the 
best  hotel,  and  promised  to  call  later  and  do  all  in  his  power  to 
assist  us.  At  this  hotel  and  at  the  other  two  hotels  in  the 
town  we  found  the  available  accommodation  so  uninviting,  not 
to  say  disgusting,  that  we  returned  in  an  hour’s  time  to  Mr. 
Prelle,  who  received  us  with  a knowing  smile.  He  understood 
the  situation  thoroughly,  and  he  was  a man  of  resource.  A new 
hotel  was  being  built,  it  was  still  in  the  hands  of  the  painters 
and  devoid  of  furniture,  but  he  prevailed  upon  the  proprietor 
to  let  us  have  one  of  the  rooms,  which  was,  of  course,  luxuriously 
clean,  and  provided  us  with  a couple  of  iron  bedsteads  and  a 
sofa.  We  had  already  laid  in  a stock  of  tinned  provisions 
against  accidents ; but,  pending  some  arrangement  as  to  our 
future  movements,  Mr.  Prelle  insisted  on  our  joining  his  hos- 
pitable table.  As,  however,  there  was  a mail  steamer  about  to 
start  up  the  Amur  for  Blagoveschensk,  we  did  not  anticipate 
any  abuse  of  his  hospitality. 

Before  leaving  the  Vladivostock-Habarovsk  Railway  I must 
say  one  word  regarding  it.  So  far  as  I am  able  to  judge,  it  is 
well  equipped  in  every  way : it  is  well  built,  there  having  been 
few  natural  difficulties  to  overcome;  there  is  abundance  of 
rolling  stock  ; there  are  twenty-two  sidings  in  addition  to  the 
twenty-four  stations,  where  the  line  is  duplicated,  affording  great 
facility  for  through  traffic ; and,  although  I heard  complaints 
regarding  the  slowness  of  the  goods  trains — three  days  being 
quoted  as  the  time  frequently  required  to  cover  the  477  miles — 
punctuality  is  certainly  attended  to  in  the  case  of  the  passenger 
trains.  On  the  Nikolsk-Manchurian  line,  which  is,  as  I have 
already  stated,  open  ninety-one  versts  for  passenger  and  goods 
traffic,  the  trains  do  not  as  yet  exceed  a speed  of  twelve  miles 
an  hour,  the  schedule  time,  exclusive  of  stoppages,  being  five 


96 


MANCHURIA 


hours  and  ten  minutes.  And  one  word  of  advice  to  those  who 
would  travel  on  Russian  railways.  Follow  the  Russian  example 
and  travel  light.  While  a passenger  may  travel  first  class  for 
a penny  a mile,  it  will  cost  him  a like  sum  for  each  pound 
weight  of  baggage  which  he  carries  in  excess  of  the  free 
allowance  of  one  pood  or  36  lb. 


CHAFTER  IV 


ON  THE  AMUR,  SHILKA  AND  TRANS-BAIKAL  RAILWAY 

HABAROVSK  is  a town  of  large  area,  scattered  over 
three  hills  and  the  intervening  valleys,  and  overlooks 
the  Amur  at  its  junction  with  the  Ussuri.  It  is  laid  out  on  the 
American  block  system,  with  wide  streets  running  north  and 
south,  and  numerous  cross  streets  with  the  usual  narrow  wooden 
pavements.  Most  of  the  buildings  are  of  wood,  but  here  and 
there  in  prominent  positions  red-brick  blocks  are  springing  up — 
the  residences  and  offices  of  Government  officials.  The  popula- 
tion amounts  to  16,000,  exclusive  of  the  garrison,  which  numbers 
anything  from  2,000  to  3,000  men.  There  is  a considerable 
number  of  Chinese,  who  are  preferred  as  carpenters  and  artisans 
generally.  They  are  also  small  shopkeepers,  and  at  street  cross- 
ings tiny  wooden  erections,  like  railway  ticket  offices,  have  been 
run  up  where  they  dispense  matches,  kerosene  oil,  fruit  and  other 
articles.  I stopped  at  one  of  these  places  to  invest  in  a box  of 
matches,  and  the  lad  in  charge  was  quite  overcome  when  I named 
my  wants  in  his  own  tongue.  Instead  of  at  once  supplying  me 
he  hastened  to  inform  his  partner  in  my  hearing,  “ Come,  here 
is  a foreigner  who  speaks  Chinese,”  and  it  was  only  after  I had 
answered  many  questions,  not  only  about  myself  but  also  re- 
garding the  probabilities  of  the  death  of  the  Emperor  of  China, 
of  which  they  had  heard  a report,  that  I secured  my  box  of 
matches.  I was  an  object  of  curiosity  every  time  I passed  that 
shop,  and  I gather  from  this  that  very  few  foreigners  in 
Habarovsk  speak  Chinese.  Many  fish -skin  Tartars  (Yu-p’i-ta- 
T (97) 


98 


MANCHURIA 


tzu)  live  in  the  neighbourhood,  but,  as  they  visit  the  town  only 
during  the  winter,  we  were  denied  a sight  of  this  interesting 
people.  We  witnessed  a Japanese  funeral,  which  was  attended 
by  about  fifty  Japanese  men  who  walked  bareheaded  in  pro- 
cession past  our  quarters.  They  all  wore  European  clothes  and 
appeared  to  belong  to  the  better  class.  We  saw  several  Russian 
processions,  composed  of  men,  women  and  children,  preceded 
by  a horseman  with  bared  head.  Following  the  horseman  were 
a primitive  instrumental  band,  banners  held  aloft,  several  priests 
chanting,  and  a motley  crowd  bringing  up  the  rear  and  joining 
in  the  chorus. 

Although  there  was  little  evidence  of  any  great  trade,  we 
noticed  many  good  shops,  some  of  them  displaying  in  their 
windows  the  latest  European  fashions,  others  beautifully  finished 
samovars , and  others,  again,  tinned  meats,  vegetables  and  fruits, 
bottled  jams  and  boxes  of  sweets.  There  are  several  factories, 
including  a brewery,  and  aerated  waters  flavoured  with  every 
possible  kind  of  fruit  are  a specialty  of  the  town.  Cattle  and 
wheat  are  imported  from  Manchuria,  and  the  latter  is  at  present 
ground  into  flour  by  numerous  windmills,  but  a large  steam 
mill  will  soon  be  erected  for  the  purpose.  The  public  gardens 
occupy  the  sloping  bank  of  the  Amur,  and  are  separated  from 
the  church  and  museum  on  the  top  of  the  slope  by  a wide  plaza, 
which  is  used  as  a parade  ground.  Here,  as  in  private  gardens 
in  the  town,  apple  trees  were  in  full  blossom.  To  the  south  of 
the  church  is  a lofty  triumphal  wooden  arch,  erected  in  honour 
of  the  visit  of  the  present  Czar  in  1891.  It  spans  the  street 
leading  down  from  the  plaza  to  the  bazaar  and  wharves  on  the 
bank  of  the  Amur.  To  my  mind,  however,  the  most  imposing 
monument  in  Habarovsk  is  the  bronze  statue  erected  in  an 
elevated  comer  of  the  Public  Gardens  to  the  memory  of  Count 
Muraviev,  who  was  Governor- General  of  the  Amur  in  1854-55. 
It  stands  on  a fine  granite  pedestal,  and  the  Count  is  repre- 


(i)  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  TOWN 


(2)  STATUE  OF  COUNT  MURAVIEV  AMURSKI 


HABAROVSK 


— 


- 


ON  THE  AMUR 


99 


sented  bareheaded,  with  folded  arms,  holding  in  his  right  hand 
a partly  unrolled  scroll,  and  gazing  calmly  across  the  Amur,  the 
scene  of  his  triumphs.  At  the  junction  of  the  Amur  and  the 
Ussuri,  where  there  are  many  low  wooded  islands,  a distance  of 
live  versts  separates  the  Primorsk  from  Manchuria;  but,  after 
the  junction,  the  Amur  narrows  to  about  two  versts  as  it  pro- 
ceeds on  its  altered  course  northwards.  From  Habarovsk  to 
Nikolaevsk  navigation  was  still  closed,  and  the  river  would  not  be 
free  of  ice  for  about  a month.  Vessels  drawing  ten  feet  can 
ascend  the  Amur  from  its  mouth  to  Habarovsk  during  the  live 
months  in  which  navigation  is  open,  and  it  was  reported  that 
a Russian  gun-boat  was  expected  to  visit  the  town  during  the 
year. 

Although  Habarovsk  is  the  seat  of  the  Governor-General 
of  Za-Baikalskaia,  Amurskaia  and  Primorskaia,  there  was  no 
special  evidence  of  that  militarism  which  is  such  a distinctive 
feature  of  Vladivostock.  Whereas  in  the  latter  town  every 
third  foot  passenger  was  either  a soldier  or  a sailor,  in  Haba- 
rovsk I noticed  only  a few  soldiers  with  fixed  bayonets  standing 
guard  over  individual  convicts  engaged  in  repairing  the  roads. 
At  the  time  of  our  visit  Governor- General  Grodekov  was  absent 
on  a tour  of  inspection  of  the  water  frontier  of  the  Primorsk 
and  Manchuria — the  Ussuri  River  and  Lake  Hinka.  Haba- 
rovsk itself  is  within  the  Primorsk  province,  which  extends 
westward  for  about  twenty  versts  beyond  the  town  before  it 
touches  Amurskaia. 

Our  first  visit  after  settling  down  on  the  afternoon  of  the 
15th  of  May  was  to  the  mail  steamer,  which  was  due  to  sail  up 
the  Amur  on  the  17th.  This  was  the  second  steamer  of  the 
season,  the  first  having  sailed  packed  with  passengers  on  the 
12th.  We  were  very  pleased  with  the  little  vessel  and  thought 
we  were  in  luck’s  way — there  being  nine  first-class  cabins  accom- 
modating eighteen  passengers  with  a good  upper  promenade 


100 


MANCHURIA 


deck  ; but  when  we  applied  for  passages  we  were  at  once  face 
to  face  with  the  word  46  Niet  ”.  The  Mail  Steamer  Company  is 
subsidised  by  the  Government,  who  have  the  first  choice  of 
passages  for  Russian  officers,  and  it  is  only  after  the  Govern- 
ment are  satisfied  that  any  remaining  vacancies  can  be  allotted 
to  outsiders.  On  the  present  occasion  the  Government  had 
taken  up  the  whole  of  the  steamer  for  officers  proceeding  to 
Blagoveschensk  on  topographical  duty,  and  we  should  have  to 
wait  for  the  next  mail  steamer  leaving  on  the  22nd.  Fortu- 
nately, however,  there  are  other  steamer  companies  on  the 
Amur,  and  on  the  16th  Mr.  Prelie  rushed  in  and  informed 
us  that  a steamer  had  just  arrived  from  up  river  and  would 
leave  the  same  night.  We  hastily  bundled  up  our  traps,  and 
in  company  with  Dr.  Gelpcke,  a German  judge  from  Kiao- 
chow,  who  was  proceeding  home  by  this  route,  boarded  the 
Neronov  at  8 p.m.  As  soon  as  we  got  on  board  the  struggle 
for  accommodation  began.  There  were  only  three  small  cabins, 
two  of  which  had  already  been  secured  by  Russians.  Two 
Russian  captains  occupied  one,  while  the  other  was  secured  by  a 
Russian  engineer  officer  and  his  bride.  Mr.  Prelle  came  to  the 
rescue,  and  prevailed  upon  the  captain  of  the  vessel  to  give  up 
his  cabin  to  my  family  while  I slept  in  the  saloon,  and  Dr. 
Gelpcke  was  given  possession  of  the  vacant  cabin.  We  were  all 
perfectly  satisfied,  and,  had  the  fates  been  favourable,  I am 
perfectly  sure  that  we  should  have  had  a very  comfortable  trip 
as  far  as  Blagoveschensk.  Our  passage  tickets  cost  18*36 
roubles  each,  with  a half  ticket  for  my  son,  and  we  had  to  pay 
6*44  roubles  for  excess  baggage.  This  is  exclusive  of  food 
supplied  by  the  ship,  which,  being  of  the  barest  description, 
had  to  be  supplemented  by  stores  purchased  in  Habarovsk. 
We  got  up  anchor  at  9 p.m.,  and  ran  alongside  a couple  of 
barges  which  we  were  to  tow  as  far  as  Blagoveschensk,  whence 
they  were  to  be  sent  up  to  Stretensk  to  embark  Russian 


ON  THE  AMUR 


101 


recruits  and  remounts  for  cavalry  in  the  Primorsk.  We  re- 
mained by  the  barges  over  night,  and  started  up  river  at  4 a.m. 
on  the  17th  of  May.  The  distance  by  river  from  Habarovsk 
to  Blagoveschensk  is  918-J  versts,  which  we  expected  to  cover  in 
four  or  five  days ; but,  owing  to  a series  of  accidents  which  will 
be  detailed  later,  we  did  not  reach  the  latter  town  till  the  even- 
ing of  the  27th.  The  Amur  and  the  Shilka  are  marked,  lighted, 
and  in  some  places  buoyed  by  the  Russian  Government,  and 
two  vessels  are  constantly  employed  during  the  open  season  in 
surveying  the  river,  and,  as  the  channel  changes,  in  altering  the 
marks.  At  all  difficult  crossings  there  are  leading  marks  fixed 
on  poles  surmounted  by  oil  lamps,  red  on  the  right  bank,  white 
on  the  left,  which  have  to  be  kept  in  line  to  avoid  grounding, 
for  the  shallowness  of  both  rivers  is  remarkable,  and  necessitates 
the  employment  of  paddle  or  stem  wheel  steamers  only.  And 
not  only  so,  but  the  most  of  these  steamers  are  simply  tow- 
boats engaged  in  towing  large  barges  of  very  light  draught. 
They  are  all  wood  burners,  and  when  the  bunkers  and  the  deck 
fore  and  aft  are  filled  and  piled  with  logs  there  is  no  pos- 
sible room  for  cargo.  Such  was  the  Neronov , a strong  iron 
paddle-wheeled  vessel,  with  twin  funnels,  built  by  Armstrong, 
Whitworth  & Co.  in  1896.  On  leaving  Habarovsk  we  zigzagged 
about  from  side  to  side  of  the  river  dodging  islands,  which  are 
very  numerous  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Sungari,  a distance  of 
241  versts.  Here  the  banks  of  the  Amur  are  low,  and  the 
land  is  densely  wooded  with  short  trees,  such  as  willows  and 
elms.  Two  hours  after  starting  we  stopped  to  load  fire- 
wood at  a wood  station  on  the  north  or  Russian  bank. 
Along  the  whole  course  of  the  Amur  and  Shilka  split  logs 
of  pine  and  birch  are  piled  at  intervals  in  long  rows  about 
seven  feet  high,  and  over  these  fly  the  flags  of  the  different 
steamship  companies.  Immediately  the  steamer  is  moored 
alongside  a wood  station  the  crew  are  sent  on  shore,  each 


102 


MANCHURIA 


couple  provided  with  two  long  poles,  near  the  ends  of  which 
wedges  of  wood  are  nailed  to  keep  the  logs  piled  on  the  poles 
from  slipping  off.  On  reaching  the  decks  the  loads  are  turned 
over,  leaving  a pole  in  the  hands  of  each  of  the  bearers.  When 
coaling,  if  I may  use  the  word,  all  the  crew  wear  large  leather 
gloves  as  a protection  against  wood  splinters.  To  take  in  a full 
complement  of  wood  occupies  about  two  hours,  and,  as  this  has 
to  be  done  once  a day,  the  passengers  have  the  opportunity  of  a 
daily  run  on  shore.  Our  vessel  was  manned  by  a captain,  mate, 
pilot,  engineer  and  staff  of  firemen,  cook,  carpenter  and  some 
ten  of  a crew,  four  of  whom  were  Chinese,  and  earned  exactly  the 
same  wages  (thirty  roubles  a month)  as  the  Russian  members. 
One  of  the  most  important  duties  on  board  was  sounding:  a piece 
of  wood  about  two  inches  in  diameter  and  iron  shod  at  the  thick 
and  tapering  to  an  inch  at  the  thin  end,  to  which  a piece  of 
rope  is  lashed,  is  painted  in  foot  lengths  black,  white  and  red 
alternately  along  its  whole  length  of  eleven  feet,  and  one  of  the 
crew  was  constantly  on  deck  plunging  it  harpoon  fashion  into 
the  river,  retaining,  of  course,  the  rope  in  his  right  hand.  When 
he  struck  bottom  he  shouted  to  the  pilot  the  depth  of  water. 
Probably  the  hardest  worked  individual  on  board  was  the  saloon 
boy,  a Chinese  lad  of  about  eighteen  years  of  age.  He  was  every- 
body’s servant : he  attended  not  only  the  passengers  but  also  the 
captain,  mate,  pilot  and  engineer,  and  earned  the  modest  wage 
of  ten  roubles  a month  and  his  food.  He  told  me  that  he  was 
born  in  Blagoveschensk,  and  was  therefore,  I presume,  a Russian 
subject.  He  spoke  Russian  of  a kind,  but  his  Chinese  was  very 
poor,  and  we  had  some  little  difficulty  in  understanding  each 
other.  He  was,  however,  all  anxiety  to  attend  to  everybody, 
and  always  turned  up  with  a smiling  face.  He  had  the  ob- 
jectionable habit  of  mixing  up  the  table-napkins,  to  which  he 
appeared  to  be  little  accustomed,  and  he  was  not  distressed  if 
the  piece  of  white  waxcloth  which  did  duty  for  a table-cover 


ON  THE  AMUR 


103 


remained  stained  for  days.  In  fact,  we  had  said  good-bye  to 
cleanliness,  for  there  was  no  bathroom  on  board,  and  the  sanitary 
arrangements,  though  very  imperfect,  were  much  superior  to 
what  we  experienced  later.  The  ship's  meals  were  : breakfast  at 
eight  o'clock,  consisting  of  bread  and  tea  a la  Russe , and  dinner 
at  noon,  made  up  of  soup  (usually  cabbage)  with  chunks  of  beef 
in  it,  to  which  the  passengers  helped  themselves  from  the  tureen, 
and  which  they  were  expected  to  cut  up  and  devour  after  finish- 
ing the  soup  in  their  plates.  This  was  followed  by  a meat  dish, 
usually  beef  cutlets  or  hash  and  the  inevitable  tea.  A glass  of 
tea  could  be  had  at  four  o’clock,  and  supper,  consisting  of  one 
meat  dish  (always  beef),  was  served  at  six  o’clock,  with  more  tea, 
which  seems  indispensable  at  every  Russian  meal  and  at  all  odd 
times.  The  preparation  of  tea  in  Russia  is  somewhat  peculiar 
according  to  our  ideas.  A few  pieces  of  burning  charcoal  or 
chips  of  wood  are  dropped  down  the  funnel  of  a samovar 
into  the  small  furnace  at  the  bottom,  the  samovar  having 
previously  been  filled  with  water,  which  surrounds  the  metal 
chimney.  There  is  a considerable  draught  upwards  from  the 
furnace,  which  is  open  metal  work,  and  it  can  be  increased 
by  the  addition  of  an  extra  funnel  with  a small  wooden 
handle.  The  little  fire  glows,  the  smoke  disappears,  the 
water  boils,  and  the  steam  appears  at  a small  opening  in 
the  top  of  the  samovar.  At  the  bottom  of  the  samovar 
there  is  a tap  for  allowing  the  boiling  water  to  escape  when 
required.  A tea-pot  is  now  filled  with  tea  leaves  and  boiling 
water  poured  over  them.  The  infusion,  as  might  natur- 
ally be  supposed,  is  very  dark  in  colour  and  very  strong.  It 
has,  therefore,  to  be  reduced.  A little  of  what  I may  call  the 
essence  of  tea  is  now  poured  into  a tumbler,  much  or  little 
according  to  the  taste  of  the  drinker,  and  the  glass  is  placed 
under  the  tap  of  the  samovar  and  filled  up  with  boiling  water. 
This  is  Russian  chat , and  sugar  and  a slice  of  lemon  (if  procur- 


104 


MANCHURIA 


able)  are  added,  but  no  milk  or  cream.  We  found  it  refreshing 
at  first,  but  soon  got  very  tired  of  it.  The  Russian,  however, 
makes  it  a medium  for  mixing  claret,  brandy,  vodka  or  any 
other  wine  or  spirit  that  may  be  at  hand. 

We  had  accomplished  about  100  versts  from  Habarovsk 
when,  at  9.30  p.m.  of  the  day  of  our  departure,  we  ran  full  speed 
into  a sand  spit  projecting  into  the  river  from  the  Russian  bank. 
There  is  a sharp  bend  of  the  river  at  the  spot,  and  the  pilot 
had  tried  to  round  it  too  soon.  The  result  was  that  the 
Neronov  was  hard  and  fast.  Every  steamer  on  the  Amur 
carries  a couple  of  long  spars  pointed  and  shod  with  iron  at 
the  thin  end,  with  a cross  piece  through  the  spar  near  the  thick 
end.  When  a vessel  grounds  and  reversing  fails,  one  of  the 
spars  is  dropped  point  downwards  in  a perpendicular  direction 
into  the  shallows,  the  thick  end  with  the  cross  piece  rising 
above  the  deck.  A chain  with  a pulley  is  adjusted  round  the 
cross  piece  and  attached  to  a noose  fastened  round  the  bits  near 
the  bows.  The  pulley  chain  is  then  passed  round  the  capstan, 
and  as  the  latter  revolves  the  spar  is  either  pushed  into  the 
sand  or  the  vessel  is  raised.  If  the  first  spar  is  only  partly 
successful,  it  is  kept  in  position  and  the  second  spar  goes  over- 
board and  is  similarly  manipulated.  Clumsy  as  the  method 
looks,  I have  seen  it  fail  in  only  one  of  the  many  occasions 
on  which  it  was  our  misfortune  to  witness  its  employment  later. 
The  solitary  failure  was  the  Neronov , for,  although  the  crew- 
worked  half  the  night  and  all  next  morning,  she  would  not 
budge  an  inch,  while  sand  was  meantime  making  all  round  her. 
There  was  no  help  for  it  but  to  await  a towr  from  one  of  the 
same  company’s  steamers.  During  the  day  we  met  four  Russian 
steamers  towing  barges  whose  decks  were  crowded  with  horses, 
the  steamers  themselves  being  packed  with  Russian  officers,  who 
always  travel  in  uniform.  We  had  passed  a tow-boat  flying 
the  flag  of  the  Chinese  Eastern  Railway  Company  with  two 


ON  THE  AMUR 


105 


large  barges  heavily  laden  with  railway  materials  bound  for  the 
Sungari  and  Harbin.  On  the  afternoon  of  the  following  day 
(the  18th)  the  Nerchugan , a steamer  belonging  to  the  same 
company  as  the  Neronov , came  down  river  with  a large  barge 
packed  with  horses  and  recruits,  and,  after  finding  a safe 
anchorage  for  her  barge,  stood  by  to  render  us  assistance.  She 
made  three  desperate  attempts  to  tow  us  off,  but  failed,  and  in 
the  end  picked  up  her  barge  and  proceeded  to  Habarovsk.  We 
were  now  told  that  all  hope  of  getting  the  steamer  off  was 
abandoned  for  the  present,  and  that  we  would  be  taken  on  to 
Blagoveschensk  by  the  company's  first  up  river  steamer,  probabl) 
the  Nerchugan  herself.  The  bride  and  bridegroom  were  too 
happy  to  care  about  the  delay ; but  the  other  passengers,  and 
especially  we  ourselves,  who  had  hoped  to  be  among  the  first 
Britishers  to  pass  over  the  recently  completed  Siberian  Railway, 
were  not,  I fear,  blessed  with  the  same  equanimity.  During 
this  enforced  idleness  I had  several  interesting  conversations 
with  one  of  the  Russian  captains,  in  one  of  which  he  assured 
me  that  within  five  years  Harbin  would  be  a Russian  town, 
just  as  Pretoria  would  soon  be  British.  Curiously  enough,  the 
former  is  now  in  Russian  military  occupation,  and  the  British 
flag  has  been  hoisted  in  the  latter.  Early  in  the  morning  of 
the  20th  of  May  the  steamer  Admiral  Nevelski  arrived  from 
Habarovsk  with  a view  to  assisting  us ; but,  seeing  that  our 
position  was  hopeless,  she  turned  round  and  returned  without 
making  any  attempt  to  tow  us  off.  Steamers  passed  up  and 
down,  some  with  barges  laden  with  locomotives  and  girder 
bridges  for  the  Manchurian  Railway,  others  with  passengers  to 
and  from  Blagoveschensk,  and  day  after  day  our  eyes  were 
strained  to  catch  sight  of  the  smoke  of  the  Nerchugan , while 
“ parahod  niet 11  (no  steamer)  became  a bye  word  among  the 
passengers.  It  was  not,  however,  till  noon  of  the  21st  that 
the  captain  of  the  Neronov  assured  us  that  the  steamer  was 


106 


MANCHURIA 


actually  in  sight,  and  it  was  with  a feeling  of  relief  that  we 
found  ourselves  soon  afterwards  on  the  deck  of  the  Nerchugan. 
She  was  already  full  of  passengers,  sixteen  in  all ; but  accom- 
modation, more  or  less  comfortable,  was  found  for  the  stranded 
eight.  We  were  fortunate  in  having  the  first  mate’s  cabin 
assigned  to  us — a comparatively  large  room  with  one  bed,  but 
ample  floor  space  for  sleeping ; the  youthful  couple  got  the 
steward’s  cabin ; the  engineer  shared  his  room  with  one  of  the 
Russian  officers  ; and  the  other  two  were  placed  in  the  forehold. 
Seven  of  the  sixteen  passengers  were  British,  some  of  them  old 
friends.  The  transfer  of  the  baggage  and  of  one  of  our  barges 
was  effected  at  3 p.m.,  when  we  once  more  started  up  river. 

Along  the  whole  of  the  north  bank  of  the  Amur  Cossack 
stations  have  been  planted  from  time  to  time  at  intervals 
varying  from  ten  to  thirty  versts.  They  are  simple  clearings  in 
the  forest,  and  no  attempt  at  cultivation  on  a large  scale  has 
been  made.  Gardens  there  are,  but  even  they  are  small  and 
ill-kept.  There  is,  however,  abundance  of  pasturage  in  the 
forest,  and  cattle-rearing  is  universal.  At  every  station  there 
are  fenced  stockyards,  where  the  cattle  are  rounded  up  for  the 
winter.  As  a rule,  a station  consists  of  a few  streets  of  log 
huts,  with  a large  white -painted  wooden  church,  surmounted  by 
domes  and  minarets,  usually  of  a green  or  purple  colour,  which 
vary  in  number  according  to  the  wealth  of  the  population. 
During  the  winter  the  men  devote  themselves  to  hunting  and 
felling  timber  for  the  steamers,  and  the  entire  absence  of  means 
of  communication  may  account  for  the  dearth  of  agriculture. 
True,  at  every  station  at  which  we  stopped  women  and  girls 
clad  in  gaudy  skirts  and  wrappers,  with  shawls  over  their  heads, 
crowded  the  river  bank,  carrying  farm  produce  of  all  kinds  for 
sale.  Bread,  milk,  eggs,  fowls,  curds,  butter,  small  oxen,  calves, 
pigs,  and  on  very  rare  occasions  fish,  could  usually  be  had  at 
very  cheap  rates.  The  Amur  abounds  with  sturgeon  and  salmon. 


ON  THE  AMUR 


107 


and  yet  I can  recall  only  two  occasions  on  which  I noticed  fish 
lines  and  hooks,  and  once,  on  the  foreshore  at  Puzina,  I saw 
a huge  sturgeon  being  cut  up  and  disposed  of.  There  is  abun- 
dance of  wealth  in  the  Amur,  but  there  is  nobody  to  collect  or 
consume  it. 

Between  Habarovsk  and  Blagoveschensk  there  are  about 
forty  of  these  stations,  with  populations  ranging  from  five  to 
over  a thousand  souls,  and  very  evenly  divided  between  males 
and  females.  In  the  itinerary  of  the  Amur  and  Shilka,  which 
will  be  found  in  an  appendix,  the  populations  as  given  in  the 
Guide  to  the  Great  Siberian  Railway , published  in  St.  Petersburg 
in  1900,  are  recorded. 

At  noon  on  the  22nd  of  May  we  passed  the  mouth  of  the 
Sungari,  where  a number  of  steamers  and  barges  were  at  anchor. 
Hitherto  we  had  been  ploughing  the  waters  of  the  Amur 
between  low,  densely-wooded  banks,  at  times  ten  to  twelve 
feet  high,  at  others  shelving  to  the  river,  and  it  was  only 
when  we  approached  Ekaterino-Nikolskaia  that  hills  began 
to  show  themselves  on  the  Manchurian  side.  At  this  station, 
which  is  375  versts  from  Habarovsk,  rafts  were  moored  along 
the  river  face,  and  logs  of  pine  were  being  dragged  up  the  steep 
bank  by  horses  and  oxen.  Beyond  Ekaterino-Nikolskaia  the 
river,  which  is  half  a mile  broad  above  its  junction  with  the 
Sungari,  narrows  considerably,  and  is  hemmed  in  by  low  hills 
on  both  sides,  for  we  were  approaching  the  Hingan  Pass,  where 
the  width  of  the  Amur  does  not  exceed  300  yards.  Here  the 
river  has  cut  a passage  through  the  eastern  outliers  of  the 
Lesser  Hsing-an  Range,  and  for  quiet,  peaceful  beauty  it  would 
be  difficult  to  surpass  the  twilight  picture  of  the  dark  river, 
hemmed  in  on  both  sides  by  elm  and  birch-clad  hills  350  feet 
in  height.  Here  and  there  patches  of  snow  among  the  dense 
foliage,  and  blocks  of  blue  ice  at  the  water’s  edge,  added  to  the 
charm  of  the  scene.  The  small  village  of  Hingan,  with  its  few 


108 


MANCHURIA 


log  huts,  scarcely  ruffled  the  eeriness  of  the  gorge.  It  was  not 
grand.  There  is  nothing  on  the  Amur  to  equal  the  gorges  of 
the  Upper  Yang-tsze,  which  rise  several  thousand  feet  sheer  up 
from  the  river,  and  inspire  awe  in  the  breast  of  the  traveller 
below.  The  scenery  on  the  Amur  is  of  a different  type.  Hills 
densely  clothed  with  elms,  pines  and  birches  there  are,  with  an 
occasional  lofty  crag  overlooking  the  river ; but  want  of  life, 
especially  on  the  Manchurian  side,  is  apt  to  make  the  forest 
weary  and  monotonous.  In  the  lower  reaches  of  the  Amur, 
however,  the  woodcutter  has  been  hard  at  work  and  denuded 
the  banks  of  pines,  with  the  result  that  wood  for  the  steamers 
has  to  be  floated  down  from  the  upper  reaches  at  double  the 
original  cost. 

Steamers  on  the  Amur  between  Habarovsk  and  Blago- 
veschensk  usually  draw  between  three  and  four  feet : it  is  not 
safe  except  during  the  rains  in  July  and  August  to  load  a vessel 
beyond  that  draught.  In  the  narrow  Hingan  Gorge  we  had 
soundings  of  ten  feet ; but  taking  the  lower  river  as  a whole  it 
is  extremely  shallow.  Large  roots  of  trees  stranded  on  sand- 
banks high  above  the  water  level  gave  an  indication  of  the  rise 
during  floods. 

After  issuing  from  the  Hingan  Gorge,  and  before  arrival  at 
Pompeevka,  we  passed  a Chinese  gold-mining  camp  on  the 
Manchurian  side.  This  I learned  from  Chinese  at  Raddevka  is 
T’ai-p'ing-k’ou,  and  exactly  opposite  Raddevka  itself  is  the 
camp  of  Kuan-yin-shan,  lying  at  the  foot  of  a hill  some  600 
feet  high,  with  a temple  of  Kuan-yin  half  way  up  its  face.  Two 
gilt-topped  red  poles  in  the  camp  denoted  the  residence  of 
a Chinese  official  who  acts  as  superintendent  of  the  mines.  At 
Raddevka  some  uniformed  Chinese  soldiers  had  under  arrest 
a miserable  coolie  who  had  stolen  gold  and  escaped  across  the 
frontier.  He  had  been  discovered  and  handed  over  by  the 
Russians,  and  was  in  all  probability  about  to  undertake  his 


(i)  LOWER  AMUR 


WINTER 


THE  LOWER  AMUR 


ON  THE  AMUR 


109 


last  passage  of  the  dark  Amur,  for  in  these  remote  corners  of 
Manchuria  there  is  little  ceremonial  observance,  and  punishment 
is  swift  and  sure.  At  Raddevka,  which  we  reached  at  eight 
o’clock  on  the  morning  of  the  24th  of  May,  we  found  cherry 
and  other  fruit  trees  in  frill  bloom,  and  there  was  a wealth  of 
purple  azaleas  on  the  hill  behind  the  log  village,  while  the 
ground  was  in  many  places  carpeted  with  wild  strawberry 
plants.  With  flowers  collected  here  the  English  ladies  on 
board  adorned  a table  which  was  rigged  up  on  deck,  and,  having 
purchased  the  only  three  bottles  of  champagne  on  board,  the 
English  party  invited  the  captain,  officers  and  the  Russian 
passengers  to  join  them  in  celebrating  at  noon  the  anniversary 
of  Her  Majesty’s  birthday.  I am  glad  to  say  that  they  nearly 
all  responded  to  the  invitation,  and  after  the  necessary  clinking 
of  glasses  the  toast  of  long  life  to  our  beloved  Queen  was  drunk 
with  enthusiasm,  followed  by  ringing  cheers  and  “God  Save 
the  Queen”.  Our  guests  explained  through  an  interpreter  the 
pleasure  it  had  given  them  to  join  us,  and  stated  that  their 
wishes  for  Her  Majesty’s  long  life  were  as  fervent  as  our  own. 
The  simple  ceremony  had,  in  my  opinion,  the  effect  of  bringing 
about  a friendlier  feeling  between  the  Russian  and  English 
passengers.  On  board  the  Neroiwv  we  had  each  paid  one 
rouble  and  a half  per  day  for  the  ship’s  food,  and  on  the 
Nerckugan  the  English  passengers  had  arranged  with  the 
steward  to  pay  two  roubles  a head  per  day  on  condition  that 
a sweet  should  be  added  to  the  evening  meal.  Owing  to  the 
large  number  of  passengers  and  the  insufficiency  of  the  saloon 
accommodation,  meals  had  to  be  served  at  three  different  times, 
and,  as  there  was  only  one  Russian  waiter  for  the  whole 
company,  it  will  be  readily  understood  that  much  was  wanting. 
Some  of  the  passengers  could  not  face  the  inevitable  beef,  and 
contented  themselves  with  zahusJca  served  at  the  bar,  and 
consisting  of  snacks  of  caviare,  fish,  bacon,  etc.,  and  a glass  of 


110 


MANCHURIA 


vodka , all  for  the  modest  sum  of  twenty  kopeks.  There  was  no 
bathroom,  and  anything  beyond  an  ordinary  wash  had  to  be 
carried  out  under  the  pump. 

At  Pashkova,  which  is  thirty-five  and  a half  versts  above  Rad- 
devka,  the  country  on  the  Siberian  bank  of  the  Amur  becomes 
flat  and  uninteresting,  and  continues  so  until  Blagoveschensk 
is  reached.  The  Chinese  bank,  on  the  other  hand,  is  hilly  and 
densely  clothed  with  pines  and  birches ; but,  after  passing  Innoken- 
tevskaia,  which  possesses  an  exceptionally  large  and  lofty  church 
visible  for  some  miles,  the  hills  recede,  till  opposite  the  mouth 
of  the  Bureya  River  hidden  by  an  island  at  the  entrance,  they 
are  distant  several  miles  from  the  Amur.  The  captain  was  a 
very  careful  navigator,  and  although  we  had  a pilot  he  never 
left  the  bridge  except  for  meals.  To  enable  him  to  get  some 
sleep,  therefore,  we  usually  came  to  an  anchor  at  about  10.30 
p.m.,  and  started  again  next  morning  at  about  3.30.  This,  with 
about  two  hours  required  daily  for  coaling,  reduced  the  day’s 
actual  running  to  some  seventeen  hours.  Poiarkova,  where 
we  arrived  at  7.30  a.m.  on  the  26th  May,  was  the  most  impos- 
ing place  we  had  yet  seen  west  of  Habarovsk.  It  contained  a 
large,  gaily-painted  church  and  quite  a number  of  two-storied 
houses.  The  bank  of  the  river  under  the  town  was  strengthened 
with  terraces  of  millet  stalks  to  prevent  it  being  washed  away, 
and  on  the  foreshore  I counted  fifty-six  sleighs  alongside  a pile 
of  bags  containing  oats,  which  had  evidently  been  brought  down 
river  before  the  breaking  up  of  the  ice.  Here  both  banks  of 
the  river,  though  flat,  are  densely  wooded.  There  are  two 
Chinese  villages  on  the  Manchurian  bank,  a few  versts  to  the 
west  of  Poiarkova,  and  higher  up  on  the  same  bank  there  is 
a very  large  wood  station,  where  the  river  is  broken  up  into 
several  channels  by  islands.  At  the  wood  station  a mail  steamer 
and  a tow-boat  were  moored  ; bags  of  oats  had  been  discharged 
and  piled  up  on  the  bank,  and  two  herds  of  fine  cattle  were 


ON  THE  AMUR 


111 


roaming  on  the  foreshore.  A conference  of  the  steamer  captains 
was  now  held,  and,  after  over  an  hour’s  delay,  we  paid  out  a 
steel  hawser  to  the  tow-boat,  which  forged  ahead  and  made  for 
a narrow  channel  alongside  one  of  the  islands.  So  swift  was  the 
current  that,  with  both  steamers  going  for  all  they  were  worth, 
we  took  three-quarters  of  an  hour  to  stem  it.  At  times  we 
seemed  to  be  making  no  headway  at  all,  the  tow-boat  yawing 
from  side  to  side  in  her  frantic  endeavours  to  help  us.  During 
the  ascent  we  bumped  several  times.  This  is  undoubtedly  the 
most  difficult  part  of  the  river  between  Habarovsk  and  Blago- 
veschensk.  Above  the  channel  we  found  a large  barge  laden 
with  cattle  at  anchor,  and  a very  large  herd  wading  in  the  river 
on  the  Russian  bank.  At  Konstantinov k a,  which  we  reached 
at  4.30  p.m.,  we  dropped  one  of  our  barges.  The  village  lies 
about  half  a mile  from  the  river,  and  is  approached  over  wild, 
uncultivated  downs,  and  between  the  downs  and  the  street  of 
log-houses,  with  a large  church  at  the  up  river  end,  were  gardens 
of  considerable  size.  Oats  were  being  discharged  from  a barge, 
and  the  women  and  girls  hurried  down  to  the  river  with  curds, 
milk,  eggs  and  potatoes  for  sale.  Here  I learned  that  the 
potatoes  in  Siberia  are  grown  from  imported  American  seed. 
They  are  excellent  in  size  and  flavour.  There  was  quite  a 
crowd  of  Chinese,  evidently  passengers  by  the  barge,  sitting 
on  the  bank  with  their  baggage  piled  around  them.  We 
moored  for  the  night  at  Ssu-chia-t’un,  a Chinese  village  on  the 
Manchurian  bank,  where  we  took  in  firewood.  We  landed  and 
found  the  people  very  civil,  if  inquisitive  ; they  offered  eggs  and 
even  Manila  cigars  for  sale.  There  was  a large  admixture  of 
the  Manchu  element  here,  for  there  was  no  mistaking  the  head- 
dress, clothing  and  large  feet  of  the  women.  The  villagers, 
they  informed  us,  devoted  themselves  to  wood-cutting  and 
horse-breeding,  and  we  noticed  a wood  tax  station,  and  in  the 
plain  behind  the  village  a herd  of  horses  grazing.  There  was 


112 


MANCHURIA 


no  cultivation  to  speak  of,  and  the  only  industry  I observed 
was  boat-building.  We  left  Ssu-chia-t’un  at  4 a.m.  on  the  27th 
of  May,  and  from  that  village  to  Blagoveschensk  we  saw  more 
life  on  the  Manchurian  bank  of  the  river  than  at  any  other 
point  along  the  whole  course  of  the  Amur.  Village  after 
village,  with  cattle,  horses  and  tents  dotted  the  bank,  and  at 
8.30  o’clock  we  reached  the  southern  end  of  the  town  of  Aigun, 
where  the  treaty  defining  the  northern  frontier  of  Manchuria 
and  Russian  Siberia  was  signed  in  May,  1858.  Aigun,  which 
is  distant  forty-one  and  a quarter  versts  from  Blagoveschensk, 
runs  for  a couple  of  miles  along  the  bank  of  the  river,  and  is 
separated  from  the  camp  and  forts  at  its  northern  end  by  a dark 
belt  of  pines.  It  was  a sleepy-looking  place,  and  little  did  we 
think  as  we  passed  the  straggling  town  that  within  a couple  of 
months  its  garrison  would  have  dared  to  attack  the  finest  town 
in  Western  Siberia,  and  bring  inevitable  destruction  upon  itself. 
It  is  now  in  ruins,  and  a Russian  column  has  traversed  the  road 
which  leads  from  it  to  Tsitsihar,  the  capital  of  the  Hei-lung- 
chiang  province.  The  Nerchugan , which,  by  the  way,  is  a 
wooden  vessel  built  at  Nikolaevsk,  had  some  difficulty  in  nego- 
tiating the  channel  leading  to  Blagoveschensk.  Just  below  the 
junction  of  the  Zea  with  the  Amur  a long  sandbank  has  formed 
on  the  Manchurian  side,  and  we  had  the  misfortune  to  hug  the 
bank  too  closely  and  to  run  ashore.  Meantime  a heavy  squall 
of  wind  and  rain  sprang  up,  and  we  had  to  let  go  our  barge, 
which  drifted  a long  way  down  river,  dragging  her  anchor.  In 
the  teeth  of  the  gale  the  spars  were  dropped  over  the  bows,  and, 
after  a struggle  lasting  several  hours,  the  Nerchugan  suddenly 
shot  off  the  bank  into  deeper  water,  and  drifted  some  distance 
before  she  could  be  brought  to  an  anchor.  We  had  again 
effected  connection  with  our  barge  after  considerable  difficulty, 
when  a large  junk  fouled  the  hawser,  lay  right  across  the  bows 
of  the  barge,  and  was  towed  in  that  position  till  she  was  able 


ON  THE  AMUR 


113 


to  clear  herself.  At  7.30  o’clock  on  the  evening  of  the  27th 
of  May  we  dropped  anchor  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Amur 
opposite  the  town  of  Blagoveschensk,  the  journey  from  Haba- 
rovsk  having  occupied  ten  days  and  a half,  four  of  which  we 
were  aground. 

Blagoveschensk  is  built  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Amur,  and 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Zea,  and  on  the  angle  formed  by, 
and  to  the  north  of  the  confluence  of,  these  two  rivers.  It  is 
spread  over  a very  large  area,  with  wide  streets  in  comparatively 
good  repair,  and  contains  many  magnificent  mercantile  houses. 
Although  red  brick  is  now  taking  the  place  of  wood,  it  is  really 
a fine  example  of  the  architectural  value  of  the  latter,  and 
one  is  surprised  to  find  signboards  over  what  in  this  country 
might  readily  be  taken  for  palaces.  As  an  architectural  display 
it  far  surpasses  Habarovsk  and  Vladivostock,  and  there  is 
abundant  evidence  on  every  side  that  the  town  possesses  much 
wealth.  It  is,  as  I have  said  elsewhere,  the  centre  of  the 
Siberian  gold  industry.  The  noble  triumphal  arch  erected 
on  the  bank  of  the  Amur  in  honour  of  the  visit  of  the  present 
Czar  in  1891  befits  the  grandeur  of  the  surroundings.  The 
town  is  lighted  by  electricity,  and  on  the  night  of  our  stay 
there  it  was  on  fete,  and  the  streets  and  buildings  were  beauti- 
fully illuminated  with  fairy  electric  lamps  in  honour  of  Coro- 
nation Day.  The  population  amounts  to  about  33,000,  and 
there  is  a garrison  of  5,000  infantry  and  300  cavalry.  There 
are  three  large  hotels  in  the  town,  and,  in  spite  of  the  word 
“ Niet ,”  with  which  we  were  at  first  greeted,  the  whole  of  the 
English  party  and  others  succeeded  in  obtaining  a footing  in 
one  of  them,  although  we  were  warned  that  we  were  liable  to 
be  turned  out  at  any  moment  by  mail  steamer  passengers  who 
had  engaged  the  rooms  by  telegraph.  We  took  the  risk  ; but 
the  negotiations  lasted  so  long  that  it  was  midnight  before  I 

got  my  baggage  transferred  from  the  steamer.  We  had  been 

8 


114 


MANCHURIA 


informed  on  arrival  that  the  passages  by  the  mail  steamer 
leaving  for  Stretensk  in  a couple  of  days  were  all  booked,  and, 
although  one  of  our  party  had  telegraphed  from  Habarovsk 
engaging  the  whole  of  the  passenger  accommodation  in  a 
steamer  to  connect  with  the  Nerchugan , there  was  no  steamer 
forthcoming  on  arrival  at  Blagoveschensk.  In  this  connection 
I may  mention  that  the  Governor-General  at  Habarovsk  had 
promised  another  gentleman  of  the  party  that  he  would  telegraph 
to  Stretensk  to  have  a first-class  carriage  waiting  for  him ; but 
the  gentleman  in  question  had  actually  to  start  on  his  railway 
journey  in  a horse-box ! During  the  evening  one  of  our 
Russian  fellow-passengers  informed  us  that  he  and  some  others 
had  secured  passages  in  a steamer  called  the  Vladimir  Monomach , 
which  was  to  sail  for  Stretensk  next  day,  and  he  promised  to 
do  his  best  for  me  next  morning.  Although  the  best  he  could 
do  was  the  usual  “ Niet”  several  of  us  boarded  the  steamer 
early  and  succeeded  in  inducing  the  captain  to  take  us,  my 
quarters  being  a small  room  belonging  to  the  pilot,  who  was 
persuaded  to  give  it  up  for  the  sum  of  thirty  roubles,  with  an 
additional  ten  roubles  for  the  benefit  of  the  ship.  It  was  a 
bare  room  with  only  one  bunk,  and  the  floor  accommodation 
was  scanty  for  sleeping  purposes ; but  several  days  after  our 
departure  the  Russian  fellow-passenger  alluded  to  above 
insisted  on  exchanging  rooms  with  us,  he  having  secured  a 
whole  cabin  with  two  bunks  for  himself.  It  was  a kind  act, 
for  the  pilot’s  room,  although  good  enough  for  one,  was  totally 
insufficient  for  three.  Four  remained  behind,  determined  to 
try  their  luck  with  the  mail  steamer,  and  in  this  they  were 
successful,  having  bought  out  the  captain  and  second  mate 
for  considerable  sums.  This  and  our  after  experiences  taught 
us  that  the  rouble  can  effect  many  things  in  Russia. 

The  village  of  Hei-lung-chiang,  Sa-ha-lien  or  Helampo,  as 
it  is  variously  called,  lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Amur, 


BLAGOVESCH  ENSK 


ON  THE  AMUR 


115 


opposite  Blagoveschensk,  and  it  is  here  that  the  Chinese  and 
Russian  land  telegraph  lines  connect.  As  I write,  the  following 
telegram  from  Blagoveschensk,  dated  7th  September,  appears  in 
the  press : “ A solemn  thanksgiving  service,  attended  by  the 
principal  civil  and  military  authorities  and  a large  concourse  of 
people,  has  been  held  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Amur,  on  the 
site  of  the  Chinese  village  of  Sakhalin,  now  reduced  to  ashes. 
In  commemoration  of  the  capture  of  the  village  by  the  Russian 
troops,  its  name  has  been  changed  to  that  of  Ilinskipost.  The 
local  pope,  who  officiated  at  the  ceremony,  delivered  an  address, 
in  the  course  of  which  he  said,  ‘The  Cross  has  now  been 
erected  on  the  bank  of  the  Amur  which  yesterday  was  in 
possession  of  the  Chinese.  Muravieff  Amurski  foresaw  that 
this  bank  would  be  ours  sooner  or  later.’” 

The  distance  from  Blagoveschensk  to  Stretensk  is  1,197J 
versts,  and  is  reckoned  an  eight  days’  journey  by  mail  steamer 
under  favourable  conditions.  As  we  were  about  to  travel  in  an 
ordinary  cargo  steamer  with  passenger  accommodation,  we  did 
not  anticipate  such  speedy  transit,  and  considered  it  advisable 
to  lay  in  a goodly  stock  of  provisions  to  supplement  the  not 
too  sumptuous  steamer  fare.  We  soon  found  that  luxuries  in 
Blagoveschensk  were  at  prohibitive  prices.  While  Scotch 
whisky  (labelled  as  such)  manufactured  in  St.  Petersburg  and 
Russian  brandy  cost  roubles  1*40  and  2 per  bottle  respectively, 
whisky  manufactured  in  Scotland  was  not  to  be  had,  and 
French  brandy  cost  seven  roubles  a bottle,  and  as  much  as  nine 
in  the  hotels.  Russian  cigars  were  offered  at  sixteen  roubles  a 
hundred,  and  I was  told  that  the  customs  duty  amounted  to 
nine  roubles  a box — much  more  than  the  value  of  the  cigars 
themselves.  We  left  Blagoveschensk  at  10  p.m.  on  the  28th 
of  May ; but,  previous  to  our  departure,  the  first  mail  steamer 
of  the  season  arrived  from  Stretensk,  bringing  very  bad  accounts 
of  the  shallowness  of  the  Shilka  and  of  the  train  accommodation 


116 


MANCHURIA 


between  Stretensk  and  Irkutsk,  and  we  were  assured  that  unless 
the  Shilka  rose  very  considerably  the  Vladimir  Monomach , which 
was  drawing  four  and  a half  feet,  could  not  possibly  reach  her 
destination.  We  were  already  too  sick  of  struggling  with  adverse 
circumstances  to  care  about  trifles  : we  were  glad  to  be  on  board 
a steamer  of  any  kind.  I have  omitted  to  mention  that  excess 
baggage  between  Habarovsk  and  Blagoveschensk  was  charged  at 
the  rate  of  ninety-two  kopeks  a pood.  There  was  quite  a crowd 
of  Russian  and  Chinese  deck  passengers  on  our  new  steamer  (new 
to  us,  but  in  reality  an  old  wooden  tub),  who  rigged  up  planks 
and  stowed  themselves  away  in  a very  clever  fashion.  The 
Chinese  brought  their  provisions  with  them,  in  the  shape  of 
round  flat  loaves  of  bread  with  holes  in  the  centre,  through 
which  a string  was  passed : they  were  like  strings  of  cash  on  a 
large  scale.  The  sanitary  arrangements  were  disgusting  from 
an  English  point  of  view,  and  the  water  supply  was  primitive 
and  inadequate.  A bath  was  entirely  out  of  the  question,  and 
even  in  the  hotel  at  Blagoveschensk,  where  we  did  expect  to 
get  a good  wash,  there  was  no  bathroom. 

Owing  to  a dense  fog  in  the  early  morning,  during  which 
we  had  to  anchor,  the  Vladimir  Monomach  did  not  arrive  at 
Markovo,  forty-four  versts  from  Blagoveschensk,  till  7 a.m.  of 
the  29th  of  May.  In  the  Lower  Amur  we  had  experienced  a 
fairly  high  temperature  during  the  day,  while  the  evenings  were 
chilly,  and  in  the  Upper  Amur  the  extremes  were  still  more 
marked.  During  the  day  and  in  the  sun  it  was  uncomfortably 
hot  and  shade  was  desirable  ; but  it  was  frequently  freezing  over- 
night. Blocks  of  ice  were  stranded  along  the  banks  whereon 
wild  roses  were  growing,  and  the  bushy  fronds  of  the  peony 
were  a foot  above  ground,  while  beyond  on  both  sides  low  trees 
were  laden  with  white  blossom.  Just  beyond  Bibikova,  which 
is  seventv-six  and  a half  versts  from  Blagoveschensk,  the  river, 
some  800  yards  wide,  is  bounded  bv  green,  flat-topped  hills 


ON  THE  AMUR 


117 


about  100  feet  high,  clad  with  low  trees  half  way  up  their  sides, 
but  as  Bussey  a is  neared  they  recede  from  the  river  on  the 
Russian  side.  In  the  early  part  of  the  day  a few  huts  here 
and  there  were  visible  on  the  Manchurian  bank,  and  smoke  was 
curling  up  from  the  dense  forest,  where  woodcutters  were  doubt- 
less at  work.  Many  rafts  of  pine  were  met  during  the  day 
manned  by  Russians,  and  on  one  I counted  as  many  as  nine 
working  the  sweeps.  The  captain  always  slowed  down  as  we 
approached  a raft,  to  save  it  from  our  wash.  We  moored  for 
the  night  alongside  a wood  station,  and  coaled  by  the  light  of  a 
fire  of  pine  logs.  It  was  showery  overnight,  but  we  were  off 
again  at  2.30  a.m.  of  the  30th.  A steamer  drawing  three  and 
a half  feet,  crowded  with  passengers,  passed  down  in  the  early 
morning,  and  we  took  courage,  for  the  Vladimir  Monomach  was 
drawing  only  a foot  more.  Here  the  scenery  was  very  pretty  : 
occasional  cliffs  rose  from  the  river  on  the  left  bank,  and  steep, 
densely-wooded  banks  hemmed  in  the  Amur  on  the  Manchurian 
side.  Birch  was  predominant.  Every  night  we  have  had  a 
magnificent  display  of  fireworks.  Showers  of  glowing  sparks  of 
charcoal  shoot  up  from  the  steamer’s  funnel,  and  are  reflected  in 
their  thousands  ere  they  drop  and  are  lost  in  the  dark  bosom  of 
the  Amur.  During  the  day  these  burning  sparks  played  con- 
siderable havoc  with  our  clothes,  and  the  whole  of  the  vessel’s 
deck  and  painted  rails  were  scarred  and  charred  by  them.  I 
have  seen  one  of  them  drop  down  the  neck  of  the  man  who  was 
sounding,  and  cause  considerable  pain.  Beyond  Novo-Kumar- 
skaia,  and  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Kumara  River,  which 
enters  the  Amur  on  the  Manchurian  side,  a large  cliff  some  200 
to  300  feet  in  height,  surmounted  by  a high  wooden  cross,  rises 
sheer  from  the  river.  It  is  known  as  Amur  Cliff,  and  was  the 
scene  of  great  enthusiasm  when  the  present  Czar  passed  in  1891. 
It  was  crowded  with  Cossacks,  who  cheered  the  then  Czarevitch 
to  the  echo.  In  the  evening  we  passed  a still  higher  and  more 


118 


MANCHURIA 


imposing  cliff  on  the  Chinese  side,  and  were  asked  to  believe 
that  the  tinv  trickle  down  its  face  is  petroleum. 

On  the  morning  of  the  31st  of  May,  and  before  arrival  at 
Ermakova,  the  banks  of  the  river,  which  narrowed  to  about  200 
yards,  were  piled  with  blocks  of  ice,  and  at  one  place  in  a bend 
on  the  Russian  side  a large  part  of  the  gravel  bank  had  been 
freshly  scooped  out,  evidently  by  glacial  action.  Soon  after- 
wards a steamer  towing  a couple  of  barges  laden  with  horses 
passed  down  river.  These  horses  are,  I understand,  bred  in  a 
district  to  the  west  of  Irkutsk.  The  principal  entrance  to  all 
these  Russian  stations  or  villages  is  marked  by  a wooden  arch- 
way, which  is  approached  from  the  river  by  a staircase.  At 
Cherniaeva,  which  we  passed  at  7 p.m.,  the  archway  was  more 
elaborate  than  usual ; it  was  wide  and  artistically  roofed.  Here 
signals  giving  the  depth  of  water  were  posted,  showing  that 
shallows  might  be  expected  higher  up,  and  next  morning, 
between  Vaganova  and  Tolbuzina,  we  grounded  sure  enough, 
and  remained  fast  for  an  hour  and  a half  while  the  cumbrous 
spar  was  brought  into  play.  Two  steamers,  one  drawing  four 
and  a half  feet  at  the  bows  and  three  feet  at  the  stern,  passed 
down  during  the  day,  and  our  hopes  of  successfully  reaching 
Stretensk  in  the  Vladimir  Monornaeh  rose.  Overnight  the 
mail  steamer  with  our  friends  from  Blagoveschensk  caught  us 
up  and  moored  at  the  same  wood  station  ; but  we  were  off 
before  her  in  the  morning,  only  to  be  passed  a few  hours  later 
while  we  were  struggling  in  a shallow  part  of  the  river.  This 
did  not  add  to  our  happiness,  and  when  we  grounded  again  a 
few  hours  later  and  the  rain  came  down  the  social  barometer 
fell  considerably.  It  was  little  consolation  to  us  to  be  able  to 
pass  a small  Government  launch  towing  fifteen  small  rowing 
boats  up  river.  Here  and  there  in  sheltered  nooks  there  were 
snowdrifts  a couple  of  feet  above  the  water  level. 

We  passed  Albazin  during  the  afternoon.  We  had  hoped 


ON  THE  AMUR 


119 


to  see  in  this  place  some  historical  monuments  of  the  struggle 
which  was  carried  on  between  the  Russians  and  the  Chinese 
from  1685  to  1689,  when,  by  the  treaty  of  Nipchu  (Nerchinsk), 
the  Russian  fortress  built  there  was  demolished,  and  Russian 
subjects  withdrawn  to  Muscovite  territory.  We  were  disap- 
pointed. Albazin  is  a collection  of  poor-looking  log  shanties, 
and,  although  our  steamer  did  not  stop  there,  we  saw  all  we 
cared  to  see  from  the  deck.  It  appeared  to  be  one  of  the  poorest 
Cossack  stations  along  the  Amur.  In  contrast  to  Albazin, 
Reinova,  which  we  reached  the  same  evening,  is  a flourishing 
place.  It  has  a good  main  street,  with  wooden  pavement, 
running  along  the  river  bank,  containing  several  good  shops, 
where  we  were  able  to  purchase  cocoa,  jams  and  other  luxuries. 
It  likewise  boasted  of  a Post  and  Telegraph  Office,  and  it  was 
quite  a surprise  to  hear  a harmonium  and  even  a gramaphone 
at  work.  Here  we  met  a number  of  Chinese,  who  informed  me 
that  they  were  on  their  way  to  some  gold  mines  seventy  miles 
to  the  north.  Our  cargo  consisted  of  American  flour,  cement, 
brick-tea  and  vodka , which  its  owner,  who  is  also  owner  of  the 
vessel,  was  carrying  to  Stretensk  as  a venture.  On  arrival  at 
Reinova  he  received  a telegram  from  up  river  stating  that  there 
was  only  three  and  a half  feet  of  water  in  the  Shilka,  and  that 
our  vessel  could  not  proceed  beyond  Pokrovskaia.  The  Russian 
passengers  were  very  indignant,  and  asked  us  to  join  them  in 
bringing  pressure  to  bear  upon  the  owner,  and  I fear  the  poor 
man  had  a very  unhappy  time  until  we  discovered  that  it  would 
have  been  madness  to  attempt  the  ascent  of  the  Shilka  in  the 
Vladimir  Monomach.  The  bad  news  probably  induced  him 
to  dispose  of  a goodly  number  of  bags  of  American  flour  at 
Reinova.  On  the  opposite  bank  there  was  a small  Chinese 
camp  with  flags  flying. 

We  arrived  at  Svirbeeva  at  10.30  a.m.  on  the  3rd  of  June 
and  anchored  just  above  the  village,  when  the  captain  and  pilot 


120 


MANCHURIA 


proceeded  up  stream  in  a couple  of  boats  to  survey  what  was 
described  as  the  worst  crossing  in  the  whole  river.  We  spent 
a couple  of  hours  on  the  wooded  bank,  where  we  discovered  a 
couple  of  snakes,  gray  and  black  in  colour  and  about  two  and 
a half  feet  long.  I noticed  that  the  Russians  showed  a great 
aversion  to  these  creatures,  standing  at  a distance  with  large 
stones  in  their  hands,  while  a Chinese,  who  was  one  of  the  crew, 
went  in  wdth  a stick  and  disposed  of  one  of  them,  the  other 
escaping  and  succeeding  in  concealing  itself  in  the  tall  grass. 
The  verdict  was  four  and  a half  feet  on  the  crossing,  and  we 
dropped  down  river  to  Svirbeeva,  and,  following  the  example 
of  another  steamer,  discharged  part  of  our  cargo,  lightening  to 
three  and  a half  feet  at  the  bows  and  three  feet  at  the  stern.  The 
cargo  was  dumped  on  the  foreshore,  a tarpaulin  spread  over  it, 
and  one  of  the  crew  put  on  shore  with  his  box  to  guard  it 
until  the  ship’s  return.  In  the  woods  we  found  dandelions, 
wild  strawberries,  azaleas,  may  and  single  pinks  in  full  bloom, 
and  wild  and  peony  roses  beginning  to  bud.  The  trees  were 
firs,  spruces  and  birches,  firs  and  spruces  predominating.  There 
was  no  cultivation  except  in  small  gardens.  Potatoes  and  milk 
were  on  sale.  In  the  early  morning  we  met  a raft  with  a couple 
of  tarantasses,  two  horses  and  a Russian  family  floating  down 
stream.  The  vessel  that  w^as  lightening  on  our  arrival  at 
Svirbeeva  now  made  the  attempt  to  pass  the  shallows,  failed, 
and  returned  to  discharge  more  cargo.  Meantime,  another 
steamer  wdth  Chinese  passengers  bound  for  gold  mines  wras 
successful,  and  the  Vladimir  Monomach , accompanied  by  a boat 
and  crew  from  the  unsuccessful  vessel  to  watch  proceedings, 
steamed  for  the  shallows.  We  had  to  cross  the  river.  Alter- 
nately scraping  the  pebbly  bottom,  remaining  fast,  and  raising 
the  bows  with  our  spars,  we  struggled  through,  only  to  find 
that  there  was  as  shallow  a crossing  three  versts  higher  up. 
Fortunately  the  latter  was  safely  negotiated  without  a hitch, 


ON  THE  AMUR 


121 


and  the  captain  blew  several  blasts  on  the  whistle  to  warn  the 
steamer  at  Svirbeeva  that  we  had  surmounted  the  difficulties. 
It  was  now  9 p.m.,  and  we  at  once  moored  alongside  a wood 
station  after  a very  trying  day. 

A dense  fog  hung  over  the  river  on  the  morning  of  the 
4th  of  June,  and  we  did  not  get  under  way  till  7.30  o’clock. 
An  hour  later,  from  out  the  whiteness  glided  an  enormous  raft 
of  huge  pine  trees,  with  two  huts  for  the  accommodation  of 
the  twelve  men  and  four  women  (all  Russians)  who  were  its 
occupants.  The  fog  soon  lifted,  and  we  found  ourselves  in  the 
midst  of  lovely  scenery : on  either  bank  were  fairly  high  hills, 
densely  packed  with  pine  and  birch.  The  log-hut  stations  of 
Sgibneva  and  Ignashina  were  passed  at  11.15  a.m.  and  2.50  p.m. 
respectively,  and  twenty  minutes  later  we  moored  at  the  Chinese 
village  of  Mo-ho,  which  runs  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Amur 
over  a mile  above  Ignashina  and  is  the  most  important  gold 
camp  in  the  whole  of  Manchuria.  The  population  of  the  village 
probably  does  not  exceed  500,  and  I noticed  one  or  two  uni- 
formed soldiers  in  the  crowd  that  thronged  the  river  bank.  I 
learned  on  shore  that  Mo-ho  is  the  residence  of  a Taotai  who 
superintends,  and  who  was  absent  at,  the  mines  70  li  (23^  miles) 
inland.  The  most  prominent  building  was  a Russian  shop,  over 
which  flew  the  Russian  flag.  I visited  several  Chinese  shops, 
which  were  poor,  and  I record  here,  with  all  due  reserve,  the 
results  of  inquiries  made  regarding  the  mines.  I was  told  that 
there  are  about  10,000  gold -washers  (placer-mining),  and  that 
70  Chinese  ounces  of  gold  dust  represent  the  daily  output ; that 
there  are  1,000  soldiers  engaged  in  protecting  the  mines  ; and 
that  this  force,  being  insufficient,  was  about  to  be  strengthened 
by  another  500  men.  A simple  calculation  will  show  that  70 
Chinese  ounces  of  gold  per  day  would  barely  suffice  to  pay 
10,000  workmen,  not  to  speak  of  the  military  force,  so  that 
either  the  number  of  miners  was  very  much  exaggerated,  as  I 


122 


MANCHURIA 


suspect,  or  the  output  of  gold  was  understated.  These  were  the 
figures  given  by  the  man  on  the  street ; but  they  are  probably 
as  reliable  as  any  official  utterance  would  have  been.  Much 
care  had  been  taken  to  protect  Mo-ho  from  the  river,  or  more 
probably  ice.  A groin  was  built  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
village,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  bank  was  faced  horizontally 
for  about  twelve  feet  of  its  height  with  wooden  planks.  A large 
wooden  Chinese  house-boat  in  a state  of  decay  lay  on  the  top 
of  the  bank  at  the  chief  entrance  to  the  village.  There  was 
some  cultivation  ; potatoes,  onions,  wheat  and  barley  are  grown  ; 
but  millet,  the  great  crop  of  Manchuria,  will  not,  owing  to  the 
shortness  of  the  summer,  mature  so  far  north.  In  one  of  the 
shops  I noticed  some  very  poor  rice,  which  had  been  imported 
by  steamer.  It  is  a large  wood  station,  and  the  bank  was  lined 
with  logs  for  steamer  use.  Recent  reports  state  that  Mo-ho 
has  since  been  occupied  by  the  Russians  and  burned  to  the 
ground. 

As  it  was  daily  becoming  more  evident  that  the  Vladimir 
Monomach  would  not  be  able  to  ascend  the  Shilka,  the  pas- 
sengers had  been  strongly  urging  the  owner  to  make  some 
arrangements  for  their  conveyance  from  Pokrovskaia  to  Stretensk, 
and  we  were  delayed  several  hours  at  Mo-ho  while  he  proceeded 
to  Ignashina  to  telegraph  to  these  two  places  as  to  the  pos- 
sibility of  securing  passages  for  us  in  another  vessel.  But  this 
was  not  the  only  delay  during  the  day,  for  before  arrival  at 
Amazar,  a poor  log  station  reached  after  a very  shallow  crossing, 
we  bumped  heavily  on  a snag  or  rock.  A rush  was  made  to  the 
forehold  and  cargo  laboriously  hauled  out ; but  it  was  only  after 
a considerable  time  had  elapsed  that  the  ship  was  discovered  to 
be  leaking  near  the  stern.  Amid  great  excitement  she  was  run 
along  the  Chinese  bank  and  patched  up  over-night.  We  were 
now  only  about  thirty  versts  from  Pokrovskaia,  and  when  we 
left  at  6 a.m.  on  the  5th  of  June  we  expected  to  be  there  in  a 


(2) 


SCENE  ON  RIVER 


THE  UPPER  AMUR 


ON  THE  AMUR 


123 


few  hours.  Judge  of  our  surprise,  therefore,  when  an  hour  and 
a half  later  we  were  told  that  our  firewood  was  exhausted,  and 
that  there  was  no  wood  station  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood. 
We  moored  alongside  the  Russian  bank,  and  the  crew  landed 
with  saws  and  axes  and  proceeded  to  cut  and  chop  trees  into 
suitable  lengths.  And  not  only  so,  but  a quantity  of  flour  was 
carried  on  shore  to  lighten  the  ship.  Had  we  known  then,  as 
we  picked  lilies  of  the  valley  and  sweet  peas  among  the  bracken 
under  the  shade  of  pines  and  birches  on  the  steep  bank,  that  the 
passengers  by  the  mail  steamer,  which  had  passed  us  on  the  2nd 
of  June,  were  starting  that  day  from  Pokrovskaia  for  Stretensk 
on  a barge  towed  by  a light  draught  steamer,  I fear  we  would 
have  mutinied.  But  fortune,  which  had  hitherto  been  scant  in 
its  favours,  did  not  desert  us,  for  as  we  approached  Pokrovskaia 
our  eyes  were  gladdened  by  the  sight  of  eight  steamers,  in- 
cluding the  mail  steamer,  in  port,  and  surely  here  we  should  be 
able  to  find  transit  to  Stretensk.  We  came  to  an  anchor  at 
1.30  p.m.,  and  immediately  a rush  was  made  on  shore  by  the 
passengers,  who  actually  raced  each  other  along  the  river  bank 
for  a place  on  the  mail  steamer.  “ Niet  ” was  the  answer,  and  I 
was  just  leaving  another  steamer  where  filthy  accommodation 
was  to  be  had,  and  where  the  bride  and  bridegroom  had  taken 
passage,  when  a friend  from  the  mail  steamer  met  me,  took  me 
on  board  that  vessel,  and  introduced  me  to  Mr.  Bostelmann  of 
the  Chinese  Eastern  Railway  Company,  proceeding  on  business 
to  St.  Petersburg,  who,  he  said,  would  find  room  for  myself  and 
family.  Mr.  Bostelmann  not  only  advised  me  to  get  my  baggage 
on  board  the  mail  steamer,  but  even  assisted  me  in  having  it 
and  my  family  transferred.  During  my  absence  in  search  of 
passages  my  wife  had  heal’d  that  accommodation  might  possibly 
be  procured,  in  which  case  we  should  have  to  leave  in  a couple 
of  hours,  so  she  packed  up  all  the  baggage  and  dressed  our 
little  boy  who  had  been  on  his  back  for  a couple  of  days  with 


124 


MANCHURIA 


violent  fever.  When  we  went  on  board  the  Vladimir  Monomach 
we  found  that  part  of  the  baggage  had  already  gone  ; but  my 
family  were  waiting  with  the  balance  for  my  return.  We  trans- 
ferred them  at  once  to  the  mail  steamer,  and  I went  in  search 
of  the  missing  packages,  which  were  denied  access  to  the 
steamer  from  the  shore.  The  steamer  herself  was  returning  to 
Blagoveschensk ; but  a large  barge,  drawing  only  one  foot  of 
water,  was  brought  alongside  and  her  passengers  and  their 
baggage  transferred  to  it.  After  standing  by  my  effects  along 
with  other  would-be  passengers  for  at  least  an  hour  I was  told 
to  bring  them  on  board.  The  baggage  was  all  piled  on  deck 
pending  the  allotment  of  places,  and,  owing  to  the  crush  of 
passengers,  it  was  some  considerable  time  before  this  could  be 
effected.  The  ladies  and  children  were  accommodated  in  a 
saloon  set  apart  for  them,  while  I succeeded,  with  the  assistance 
of  Mr.  Bostelmann,  in  securing  the  stewardess’s  room  for  the 
sum  of  ten  roubles.  The  gentlemen’s  saloon  was  already 
crowded,  and  some  of  our  fellow-passengers  in  the  Vladimir 
Monomach  had  to  content  themselves  with  places  in  the  second 
class.  It  was  preferable  to  being  left  behind  at  Pokrovskaia, 
with  no  certainty  of  being  able  to  get  beyond.  Pokrovskaia,  of 
which  I saw  little,  except  a large  corrugated  iron  godowm,  with 
signs  of  cultivation  between  the  village  and  the  hills  beyond, 
will  haunt  me  to  my  dying  day,  and  my  reader  will  have 
learned  ere  this  that  comfort  is  not  to  be  found  on  the  Amur. 
Travelling  as  I travelled  was  not  a pleasure : it  was  simply  a 
struggle  for  existence.  I have  travelled  thousands  of  miles  in 
the  interior  of  China,  where  I expected  no  comfort,  and  I was 
not  disappointed ; on  the  Amur  I expected  at  least  certain 
facilities,  if  on  a less  liberal  scale  than  in  Europe ; but  I found 
that  if  I wanted  anything  it  had  to  be  extorted  by  sheer  dogged- 
ness and  determination  not  to  accept  a refusal. 

Not  only  was  the  barge  crowded  with  passengers  and  baggage, 


ON  THE  AMUR 


125 


but  even  the  small  steamer  Amur , which  took  us  in  tow,  was 
packed  with  a seething  mass  of  humanity.  Her  decks  and 
paddle-boxes  were  occupied  by  Chinese,  Coreans  and  Russians, 
who  spent  their  days  and  nights  in  warding  off  with  fans  and 
umbrellas  the  living  sparks  which  issued  from  her  funnel.  Every 
now  and  then  there  was  a sudden  commotion,  with  more  violent 
waving  of  defensive  weapons,  showing  that  some  one  was  on  fire. 
Tow-boat  and  barge  together  carried  about  five  hundred  souls, 
and  the  draught  of  the  Amur  with  her  living  freight  was  only 
a foot  and  a half.  The  shallowness  of  the  Shilka  in  the  spring 
of  1899  proved  a great  hindrance  to  navigation,  and  the  Mail 
Steamship  Company  found  it  necessary  to  procure  three  light 
draught  tow-boats  and  a number  of  barges  to  carry  the  mails 
and  passengers  from  Pokrovskaia  to  Stretensk.  There  was  still 
less  water  in  the  Shilka  in  1900,  and  an  extension  of  the  Siberian 
Railway  from  Stretensk  to  Pokrovskaia  is  now  talked  of  as  a 
necessity.  The  river  begins  to  rise  in  July;  but  so  little  time 
is  then  left  before  it  is  blocked  by  ice  that  the  Shilka  can  never 
be  looked  upon  as  a commercial  highway  of  any  practical 
value. 

We  left  Pokrovskaia  at  8.15  p.m.  on  the  5th  of  June,  and  an 

hour  later  we  had  covered  the  last  few  versts  of  the  Amur  and 

arrived  at  the  confluence  of  the  Argun  and  the  Shilka,  whose 

combined  waters  go  to  make  up  the  Hei-lung-chiang — the 

“ Black  Dragon  River  ” — on  which  we  had  already  spent  twenty 

days.  We  passed  from  Manchuria  and  Amurskaia  to  the  Trans- 

Baikal  province,  and  as  I gazed  in  the  twilight  on  the  bold, 

densely- wooded  Manchurian  bluff  which  overlooks  the  mouth 

of  the  Argun  I tried  to  penetrate  the  darkness  of  the  future, 

more  intense  than  the  darkness  of  night. 

© 

Leaving  the  Amur  for  the  Shilka  we  said  good-bye  to 
Manchuria ; but,  as  it  is  believed  that  the  Siberian  Railway  will, 
in  the  near  future,  have  far-reaching  effects  on  the  subject  of  this 


126 


MANCHURIA 


book,  and  on  communication  between  East  and  West,  I propose 
to  continue  my  narrative  to  Stretensk  and  even  to  Lake  Baikal. 

The  scenery  on  the  Shilka  is  bolder  and  finer  than  on  the 
Amur.  The  river  frequently  narrows  to  about  one  hundred 
yards  in  width,  and  is  hemmed  in  by  steep  banks  densely  wooded 
with  birch  and  pine.  There  was  every  shade  of  green,  from  the 
light- tinted  grass  in  the  gullies  to  the  dark  needles  on  the 
pines.  Blocks  of  ice  six  to  ten  feet  in  thickness  strewed  the 
water’s  edge  or  still  clung  firmly  to  the  banks.  Early  in  the 
morning  of  the  6th  of  June  we  passed  three  steamers  aground, 
and  at  noon  we  reached  Povorotnaia,  a poor  log  village  fifty -nine 
and  a half  versts  from  the  mouth  of  the  Shilka,  where  we  coaled 
on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river.  Here  we  found  a small 
Orotchi  tent,  with  a squat,  flat-nosed  woman  and  three  children, 
the  youngest  about  three  weeks  old  nestling  in  a tiny  cradle  of 
birch  bark,  of  which  the  tent  itself  was  constructed.  Higher 
up  the  Government  stern-wheel  steamer  Sungari , one  of  the 
two  vessels  engaged  in  surveying,  was  at  anchor.  Herds  of 
ponies  were  grazing  on  the  banks  wherever  it  was  possible  to 
gain  a foothold.  At  8 a.m.  on  the  7th  we  reached  Chasovaia, 
133|  versts  from  Pokrovskaia.  The  scenery  was  still  the  same : 
the  river  winds  about  between  steep  banks,  with  always  a seeming 
barrier  of  hills  ahead.  No  provision  had  been  made  for  the 
extra  passengers  taken  on  board  the  barge  at  Pokrovskaia,  and 
early  in  the  afternoon,  as  food  was  running  short,  a Cossack 
officer  and  a railway  engineer  went  on  a foraging  expedition 
when  we  wrere  taking  in  firewood  at  Sobolinaia.  For  fifteen 
roubles  they  secured  a pig,  which,  although  loudly  objecting,  was 
brought  on  board  amid  great  excitement,  the  passengers  cheering 
and  the  Russian  officers  joining  in  a welcoming  song.  It  was 
served  at  supper  the  same  evening,  but  I do  not  think  that  any 
of  the  English  passengers  enjoyed  it. 

We  reached  Gorbitza,  161J  versts  from  Stretensk,  at  mid- 


ON  THE  SHILKA 


127 


night,  but  owing  to  a dense  fog  were  unable  to  proceed  till  7.30 
o’clock  next  morning.  It  is  a large  place  with  extensive  log 
buildings  and  considerable  cultivation.  It  is  the  centre  of  a 
gold  mining  district,  and  between  it  and  Ust  Kara,  54f  versts 
higher  up,  there  is  said  to  be  an  Imperial  Reserve  of  12,000 
square  miles,  part  of  which  is  worked  by  Government  and  the 
balance  farmed  out  to  miners.  A Russian  gentleman  informed 
me  that  he  would  sooner  throw  his  money  into  the  Shilka  than 
invest  a rouble  in  Siberia.  He  told  me  that  litigation  almost 
invariably  arose  in  regard  to  contracts  entered  into  at  such  a 
distance  from  headquarters,  and  that  the  weaker  had  to  go  to  the 
wall,  and  he  inveighed  strongly  against  the  venality  of  Russian 
officials.  A fracas  had  j ust  occurred  between  Cossacks  and  bandits 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Gorbitza  and  eight  men  had 
been  shot.  It  took  thirteen  and  a half  hours  to  accomplish  the 
54J  versts  to  Ust  Kara : at  several  places  the  current  was  very 
strong,  and  for  hours  we  made  little  or  no  headway,  in  spite  of 
the  poleing  of  passengers  and  crew.  Two  steamers  passed  down 
from  Stretensk,  one  drawing  three  and  a half,  the  other  two  feet. 
Ust  Kara  is  a considerable  village,  with  two  large  churches, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Kara  River,  a tributary  of  the  Shilka.  It 
is  backed  by  flat-topped  ranges  of  high  hills  densely  wooded, 
and,  like  Gorbitza,  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  places  on  the 
river.  On  the  opposite  or  right  bank  it  is  faced  by  wooded 
rocky  heights,  showing  near  the  water’s  edge  at  least  ten  feet  of 
bare  rock  scarred  and  worn  out  by  the  current  when  the  river  is 
in  flood.  Ust  Kara  is  the  centre  of  silver  and  lead  mines,  to 
which,  previous  to  1898,  political  offenders  were  banished ; but 
I am  informed  that  only  criminals  are  now  sent  to  the  Siberian 
mines,  and  that  political  offenders  are  dealt  with  in  Russia 
itself.  I have  omitted  to  mention  that  at  Verkhne  Kularskaia, 
17 J versts  below  Ust  Kara,  we  passed  a large  dredger,  fitted 
with  electric  light  and  all  modern  appliances. 


128 


MANCHURIA 


Shilkino,  which  we  reached  at  six  o’clock  on  the  morning  of 
the  9th  of  June,  is  the  largest  station  on  the  Shilka,  and  has 
a population  of  about  one  thousand.  Four  versts  higher  up  we 
were  provided  with  a smaller  but  more  powerful  tow-boat,  the 
Ingoda , and  many  of  the  passengers  of  the  Amur  were  transferred 
to  the  upper  deck  of  our  barge.  The  scenery  became  bolder 
and  more  rocky  until  arrival  at  Botovskaia,  when  the  country 
opened  out  and  cultivation  was  general.  We  were  now  only 
sixty  odd  versts  from  Stretensk,  and  next  morning,  as  we  skirted 
the  right  bank  of  the  river,  the  group  of  officers  on  our  deck 
were  saluted  by  soldiers  on  shore,  who  were  bathing  and  drawing 
water  for  the  camp,  which  lies  on  the  outskirts  of  the  town. 
Steaming  above  the  terminus  of  the  Siberian  Railway,  on  the 
opposite  or  left  bank  of  the  Shilka,  where  we  looked  in  vain  for 
a train,  we  passed  the  pendulum  ferry,  worked  by  the  current, 
and  moored  along  the  Mail  Steamer  Company’s  wharf  at  10  a.m. 
on  the  10th  of  June,  twenty-seven  days  from  Vladivostock, 
during  which  time,  with  the  exception  of  the  three  days  and 
eighteen  hours  we  were  aground  in  the  Amur,  we  had  caught 
every  possible  connection. 

Stretensk  is  a very  much  smaller  town  than  either  Blagoves- 
chensk  or  Habarovsk.  Its  population,  which  in  1897  numbered 
only  1,710,  now  amounts  to  about  8,000,  and  the  increase  is 
due  in  a great  measure  to  the  advent  of  the  railway.  The 
town  is  narrow,  and  runs  for  about  a couple  of  miles  along  the 
right  bank  of  the  Shilka,  sloping  from  hills  in  the  rear  down  to 
the  river.  The  houses  are  nearly  all  log  built,  and  there  are 
no  prominent  buildings  as  in  the  larger  towns  of  Eastern 
Siberia.  A Chinese  fruit-seller  told  me  that  there  were  several 
hundred  of  his  countrymen  in  the  town  engaged  as  petty 
traders,  servants  and  artisans.  The  day  of  our  arrival  being 
a Sunday,  the  most  of  the  shops  were  shut,  and  this  may  have 
strengthened  the  impression  I received  that  Stretensk  is  a poor 


STRETENSK 


- 


TRANS-BAIKAL  RAILWAY  129 

place.  The  result  of  the  inquiries  which  we  at  once  made  was 
that  the  train  from  Lake  Baikal  would  probably  arrive  that 
day,  but  that,  owing  to  the  state  of  the  line,  there  was  no 
certainty  as  to  the  times  of  arrival  and  departure.  There  was 
no  rolling  stock  at  Stretensk,  and,  as  soon  as  the  engine  driver 
had  secured  a few  hours’  sleep,  the  train  would  be  turned  round. 
We  at  once  laid  in  a stock  of  crockery,  cutlery  and  provisions, 
and  during  the  afternoon  sent  our  baggage  across  the  river  to 
the  railway  station,  intending  to  spend  the  night  in  the  barge. 
Many  of  our  fellow-passengers  passed  the  night  at  the  station. 
There  was  little  sleep  for  us  that  night.  Half  an  hour  after 
midnight  I saw  the  train  steaming  into  the  terminus,  and  two 
hours  later  we  were  at  the  station  and  had  secured  tickets  for 
Irkutsk.  Much  time  was  wasted  in  passing  and  paying  for 
extra  baggage,  and  when  we  went  to  secure  places  on  the  train, 
which  was  made  up  of  fourth-class  carriages,  each  certified  to 
carry  forty -three  passengers,  with  bare  wooden  seats  for  sleeping 
accommodation,  baggage  waggons  and  horse  boxes,  we  found 
that  the  fourth-cldss  carriages  were  already  filled  by  those  who 
had  spent  the  night  at  the  station.  The  railway  officials  made 
no  attempt  to  assist  us,  and  it  became  simply  a question  of 
“ Help  yourself”.  We  put  the  ladies  into  half  of  a baggage 
waggon,  and  four  of  us  took  possession  of  a guard’s  van,  which 
we  held  against  all  comers.  The  guard  was  duly  squared,  but 
it  is  really  wonderful  how  often  he  was  changed  between 
Stretensk  and  Baikal,  and  how  persistent  each  successor  was 
to  occupy  his  room-until  he  had  been  similarly  disposed  of.  At 
every  stopping  place  one  of  us  had  to  keep  guard,  and  exclude, 
sometimes  by  main  force,  would-be  travelling  companions. 
Some  of  our  friends  who  had  spent  the  night  on  shore  at 
Stretensk  did  not  turn  up  till  morning  was  well  advanced,  and 
they  had  to  content  themselves  with  a box  certified  to  accommo- 
date forty  men  or  eight  horses,  and,  in  spite  of  all  their  exertions, 

9 


130 


MANCHURIA 


they  were  unable  to  retain  sole  possession,  men,  women  and 
children  having  been  forced  upon  them. 

The  railway  stations  at  Stretensk  and  Lake  Baikal  are 
respectively  1,450  and  1,561  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
The  distance  between  them  is  1,035|  versts,  in  the  course  of 
which  the  junction  of  the  Trans-Manchurian  Railway  now 
under  construction  and  the  Trans-Baikal  section  of  the  Siberian 
Railway  is  effected  at  Kaidalovo,  252 \ versts  from  Stretensk, 
the  Yablonoi  range  of  mountains  is  crossed  at  an  altitude  of 
3,182  feet  above  sea  level,  and  the  passage  of  the  river  Selenga 
is  accomplished  by  an  iron  girder  bridge  of  six  spans.  The 
Trans-Baikal  Railway  was  begun  on  the  23rd  of  April,  1895 ; 
but,  owing  to  disastrous  floods,  which  swept  away  a considerable 
part  of  the  line  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Nerchinsk  in  1898,  it 
has  only  just  been  completed,  and,  although  one  train  leaves 
either  end  daily,  it  is  not  yet  in  proper  working  order.  As 
far  as  Chita,  which  is  about  360  versts  from  Stretensk,  the  line 
follows  closely  the  left  banks  of  the  Shilka  and  Ingoda  rivers, 
and,  where  rock  cuttings  have  been  found  necessary,  the  track 
is  so  narrow  that  the  cliffs  appear  to  overhang  the  line.  The 
result  is  that  it  could  never  be  duplicated  except  at  a very  large 
expenditure,  during  which  the  present  track  would  be  rendered 
useless.  In  many  places,  on  the  other  hand,  the  embankment 
is  built  of  sand  and  shingle,  and  the  sides  are  pegged  diamond- 
shape  and  planted  with  young  willows  to  prevent  slipping. 
Here  the  train  was  slowed  down  to  a walking  pace.  The 
village  of  Kaidalovo  is  some  107  versts  to  the  east  of  Chita, 
and  at  this  point  the  Ingoda  River  is  crossed  by  an  iron  girder 
bridge  of  two  spans,  with  a total  length  of  560  feet.  The 
bridge  was  all  but  completed ; but  the  scaffolding  underneath 
one  of  the  spans  had  not  been  removed,  and  .railway  material 
was  being  transported  across  the  river  by  a pendulum  ferry. 
The  track  as  surveyed  from  Kaidalovo  to  the  Manchurian 


TERMINUS  OF  THE  SIBERIAN  RAILWAY  AT  STRETENSK 


TRANS-BAIKAL  RAILWAY 


131 


Tontier  measures  324 J versts;  but  I have  already  referred  to 
this  line  in  a preceding  chapter.  Between  Stretensk  and  Chita 
cultivation  was  general,  and  there  were  large  tracts  of  grass- 
and,  with  herds  of  ponies,  cattle  and  sheep.  Beyond  Chita  the 
ine  ascends  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Yablonoi  Range  through 
i forest  of  birch  and  pine,  and  it  was  with  great  difficulty  that 
jur  train,  weighing  about  200  tons,  was  dragged  and  pushed  by 
h couple  of  locomotives  over  the  highest  point  of  the  track  at 
Gongota.  Before  reaching  the  summit  there  is  a covered  rock 
■cutting  of  no  great  length.  The  descent  to  the  west  of  Gongota 
is  easy  for  a distance  of  255  versts,  the  track  following  for  the 
jinost  part  the  right  bank  of  a stream — the  Khilok — a tributary 
of  the  Selenga,  and  at  one  place  passing  through  a short  tunnel. 
Leaving  Khilok  it  ascends  to  Kisha,  whence  there  is  a steep 
idescent  to  Gorkhon,  and  thereafter  a gradual  dip  to  the  river 
Uda,  another  tributary  of  the  Selenga,  crossed  by  a two-arched 
bridge,  and  to  the  town  of  Verkhne-Udinsk  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  latter  river.  Verkhne-Udinsk  is  a prosperous  town  with 
about  8,000  inhabitants,  and  connects  with  the  Kiakhta  Road, 
through  Mongolia,  to  China.  At  the  station  I noticed  a 
[number  of  Buriats,  who  wore  short  queues  and  were  dressed  in 

I the  long  wadded  coats  and  official  winter  hats  of  the  Chinese. 
On  leaving  the  town  the  railway  crosses  the  Selenga  by  the 
six-arched  bridge  mentioned  above,  and,  following  for  some 
distance  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  goes  west  by  south  through 
well  - cultivated  and  well  - wooded  country  to  the  village  of 
Mysovaia,  on  the  south-eastern  shore  of  Lake  Baikal.  We  left 
Stretensk  at  7 a.m.  on  the  11th  and  reached  Mysovaia  at 
[9.45  p.m.  on  the  13th  of  June,  the  journey  thus  occupying  sixty- 
three  and  three-quarter  hours,  an  average  speed,  including 
stoppages,  of  nearly  eleven  miles  an  hour.  It  may  seem 
| unfair,  in  the  present  state  of  the  track,  which,  except  at 
rock  cuttings,  is  ballasted  with  gravel  and  sand  only,  to  cite 


132 


MANCHURIA 


this  speed ; but,  when  it  is  considered  that  the  rails  weigh 
only  48*6  lb.  to  the  yard,  necessitating  the  employment  of 
light  engines,  and  that  the  gradients  are  frequently  as  steep  as 
one  in  sixty,  it  would  appear  highly  improbable  that  the 
Trans-Baikal  Railway  can  ever  cope  successfully  with  heavy 
traffic  or  develop  a high  rate  of  speed. 

Before  we  reached  Baikal  it  was  rumoured  that  a storm  was 
raging  on  the  lake  and  that  the  ice-breaker  on  which  we  were  to 
make  the  passage  across  had  not  yet  arrived  from  the  opposite 
side,  and  snow  on  the  mountains  ahead  gave  support  to  the 
rumour ; but  as  we  approached  Mysovaia  in  the  twilight  the 
electric  lights  of  the  Baikal  shone  on  a placid  lake  and  the 
ripples  kissing  the  shore.  A marriage  was  being  celebrated  on 
board  the  ice-breaker,  and  we  were  kept  in  the  station  at 
Mysovaia  from  9.45  p.m.  of  the  13th  till  2.30  a.m.  next  morn- 
ing, when  we  were  shunted  along  the  wooden  pier,  at  the  end  of 
which  the  Baikal  was  moored.  A wild  dash  was  made  for  the 
steamer,  and  for  a time  passengers  and  baggage  were  inextric- 
ably mixed  up,  each  one  struggling  to  get  his  effects  on  board 
and  secure  a place  for  a few  hours’  rest.  Although  the 
Baikal  is  constructed  to  carry  a whole  train,  our  carriages 
were  not  shipped ; but  at  the  moment  the  vessel  was  not  in 
proper  working  order,  and,  moreover,  she  is  said  to  roll  in  heavy 
weather  to  an  angle  of  30°.  The  Baikal  was  built  by  Messrs. 
Armstrong,  Whitworth  & Co.,  and  launched  in  June,  1899,  at 
the  village  of  Listvianichnaia,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Lower 
Angara  where  it  leaves  the  lake.  She  is  a vessel  of  4,200  tons, 
and  her  measurements  are  290  feet  long  and  57  feet  beam,  with 
a draught  of  18  feet  at  the  bows  and  20  feet  at  the  stem.  She 
is  built  of  steel,  and  is  fitted  with  three  triple  expansion  engines, 
with  an  indicated  horse-power  of  3,750.  She  has  four  funnels. 
Her  speed  was  to  be  twenty  and  a half  versts  an  hour,  but  I 
was  told  on  board  that  she  had  never  exceeded  ten  knots. 


? 


CORNER  OF  LAKE  BAIKAL 


■ 


' 


■ 


LAKE  BAIKAL 


133 


This,  however,  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  star- 
board engine  has  broken  down,  and  that  of  the  three  propellers 
(one  at  the  bow  and  two  at  the  stem)  only  two  were  working. 
Nor  can  repairs  be  effected  until  the  floating  dock  now  in  course 
of  construction  is  finished  two  years  hence.  I was  told  that  the 
Baikal  could  cut  through  ice  over  four  feet  thick  at  the  rate 
of  several  knots  an  hour.  She  crosses  the  lake  three  times  a 
week,  and  has  on  an  average  about  eight  hundred  passengers 
bound  east.  We  left  Mysovaia  at  4 a.m.,  and,  after  a motion- 
less passage  of  five  hours,  arrived  at  Baikal-ozero  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Lower  Angara,  opposite  Listvianichnaia.  During 
the  crossing  we  had  a magnificent  view  of  the  snow-clad 
Khamardaban  Mountains  to  the  south-east,  rising  to  a height  of 
3,000  feet  above  the  lake.  It  has  been  found  that  Mysovaia  is 
not  a suitable  harbour  for  the  Baikal , and  a railway  forty - 
five  versts  long  is  in  course  of  construction  to  a point  further 
south  on  the  lake,  where  there  is  deeper  water,  and  on  its 
completion  the  harbour  will  be  transferred  to  that  place. 
This  does  not  speak  well  for  the  speedy  construction  of  the 
line  round  the  south  of  Lake  Baikal,  and  I heard  the 
opinion  freely  expressed  by  Russians  that,  in  view  of  the  great 
physical  obstacles  to  be  overcome,  this  line  may  have  to  be 
abandoned. 

We  saw  little  variety  of  animal  life  during  the  whole  of  our 
journey.  Crows,  magpies  and  sparrows  were  common  enough ; 
duck  were  likewise  plentiful  on  the  Amur ; the  note  of  the 
cuckoo  was  frequently  whispered  from  the  primeval  forest ; a 
pheasant  at  Raddevka ; and  the  song  of  the  lark  as  he 
soared  above  the  Siberian  plains — these  were  all  we  saw  or 
heard. 

My  object  in  carrying  my  reader  with  me  to  Lake  Baikal  was 
to  point  out  the  point  of  j unction  of  the  Siberian  and  Manchurian 
lines,  and,  as  that  has  been  accomplished,  I have  only  to  add  that 


134 


MANCHURIA 


after  a number  of  adventures  we  reached  London  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  2nd  of  July,  travelling  from  Irkutsk  to  Krasnoiarsk, 
Omsk,  Cheliabinsk,  and  thence  by  way  of  Moscow,  Warsaw, 
Berlin,  Ostend  and  Dover  to  London — a journey  from  China  to 
England  of  fifty -nine  days. 


\ 


CHAPTER  V 

BOUNDARIES,  PHYSICAL  FEATURES  AND  CLIMATE 

MANCHURIA,  or  the  Tung-san-sheng  (“  Three  Eastern 
Provinces”),  as  it  is  called  by  the  Chinese,  is  an  agglomera- 
tion of  petty  Tartar  or  Manchu  principalities,  lying  to  the  north- 
east of  China  Proper  and  east  of  Mongolia,  which  were  conquered 
one  after  another  and  welded  into  one  kingdom  during  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  centuries  by  a Manchu  chieftain  named 
Nurhachu  and  his  successors,  who,  pushing  south  and  west  from 
their  ultimate  capital,  Moukden  (lat.  41°  46'  N.  and  long.  123° 
37'  E.),  overthrew  the  great  Ming  dynasty  and  seated  them- 
selves on  the  throne  of  China  at  Peking  in  the  year  1644,  under 
the  name  of  Ta  Ch’ing  Ch’ao  (“The  Great  Pure  Dynasty”). 
Kuang  Hsu,  the  ninth  Emperor — Shun  Chih  being  the  first — 
of  that  dynasty,  now  reigns ; but  what  the  primitive  Manchu 
weapons  effected  in  China  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century  the  rude  agricultural  implements  of  the  Chinese  are 
accomplishing  in  Manchuria  at  the  present  day.  Since  the 
establishment  of  the  Manchu  dynasty,  however,  this  field  for 
Chinese  enterprise  and  expansion  has  been  very  much  curtailed. 
When  the  Manchus  were  struggling  with  China  the  Russians 
were  settling  on  the  banks  of  the  Upper  Amur  and  in  the 
neighbouring  regions,  which  then  constituted  part  of  Northern 
Manchuria.  This  encroachment,  which  was  naturally  resented, 
gave  rise  to  a conflict,  which  resulted  in  the  Treaty  of  Nerchinsk 
in  1689,  wherein  the  boundaries  of  the  two  Empires  are  laid 

down.  The  preamble  of  that  treaty  distinctly  states  that  it 

(135) 


136 


MANCHURIA 


was  concluded  “in  order  to  repress  the  insolence  of  certain 
rascals  who,  making  hunting  incursions  beyond  the  limits  of 
their  territories,  pillage,  murder  and  stir  up  trouble  and 
quarrels,  as  well  as  to  determine  clearly  and  distinctly  the 
boundaries  of  the  two  Empires  of  China  and  of  Muscovy”. 

The  Articles  of  this  Treaty,  so  far  as  they  define  these 
boundaries,  are  given  below  in  French  and  in  English  trans- 


lations of  the  Russi 

French. 

Article  I. 

La  riviere  nommee 
Kerbetchi,  qui  est  la 
plus  proche  de  la  riviere 
Chorna,  appelee  en  tar- 
tare  Ourouan,  et  qui  se 
decharge  dans  le  fleuve 
Saghalien-Oula,  servira 
de  homes  aux  deux  em- 
pires ; et  cette  longue 
chaine  de  montagnes 
qui  est  au-dessous  de  la 
source  de  ladite  riviere  de 
Kerbetchi,  et  qui  s’6tend 
jusqu’a  la  mer  Orientale, 
servira  aussi  de  bornes 
entre  les  deux  empires ; 
en  sorte  que  toutes  les 
rivieres  ruisseaux  grands 
ou  petits  qui  coulent  de 
la  partie  meridionale  de 
ces  montagnes  et  vont  se 
jeter  dans  le  fleuve  de 
Saghalien-Oula,  et  toutes 
les  terres  et  pays  qui 
sont  au  sud  du  sommet 
desdites  montagnes  ap- 
partiendront  a l’empire 
de  la  Chine ; et  que  toutes 
les  terres,  pays,  rivieres 
et  ruisseaux,  qui  sont  de 
1’autre  cot£  du  sommet 


n and  Chinese  texts 

Russian. 

Article  I. 

The  river  Gorbitza, 
which  joins  the  Schilka 
from  its  left  side  near 
the  river  Tchernaya,  is 
to  form  the  boundary 
between  the  two  Empires. 
The  boundary  from  the 
source  of  that  river  to 
the  sea  will  run  along 
the  top  of  the  mountain 
chain  (in  which  the  river 
rises).  The  jurisdiction 
of  the  two  Empires  will 
be  divided  in  such  a way 
that  (the  valleys  of)  all  the 
rivers  or  streams  flowing 
from  the  southern  slope 
of  these  mountains  to 
join  the  Amoor  shall  be- 
long to  the  Empire  of 
China  (lit.  of  Han),  while 
(the  valleys  of)  all  the 
rivers  flowing  down  from 
the  other  (or  northern) 
side  of  these  mountains 
shall  be  similarly  under 
the  rule  of  His  Majesty 
the  Czar  of  the  Russian 
Empire.  As  to  (the 
valleys  of)  the  other 
rivers  which  lie  between 


respectively : — 

Chinese. 

Article  I. 

The  river  Gorbitza, 
which  is  next  to  the 
Chorna  (Tchernaya)  or 
Wu-lun-mu  River,  and 
which  enters  the  Amur 
from  the  north,  shall 
constitute  the  boundary 
of  the  two  Empires.  The 
frontier  line  shall  ascend 
the  Gorbitza  to  the  Shih- 
ta-hsing-an  Range,  and 
along  that  range  (east- 
ward) to  the  sea.  The 
country  to  the  south 
of  this  range,  with  all 
its  rivers  and  streams 
entering  the  Amur,  shall 
belong  to  China,  and  the 
country  to  the  north  of 
the  range  with  its  rivers 
and  streams  shall  belong 
to  Russia. 


BOUNDARIES 


137 


des  autres  montagnes 
s’6tendant  vers  le  nord, 
demeureront  a l’empire 
de  Moscovie,  avec  cette 
clause  n^anmoins  que 
tout  le  pays  qui  est  im- 
mediatement  entre  ladite 
chaine  de  montagnes  et  la 
riviere  nommee  Oudi  de- 
meurera  indecis,  jusqu’a 
ce  que  les  ambassadeurs 
des  deux  partis,  6tant 
retournes  dans  leur  pays, 
ayent  pris  les  informa- 
tions et  les  connaissances 
n^cessaires  pour  traiter 
de  cet  article,  apres  quoi 
on  d£cidera  l’affaire,  ou 
par  des  ambassadeurs  ou 
par  lettres. 


De  plus,  la  riviere 
nommee  Ergon6,  qui  se 
d^charge  aussi  dans  le 
fleuve  Saghalien  - Oula, 
servira  de  bornes  entre 
les  deux  empires ; en  sorte 
que  toutes  les  terres  et 
pays  qui  sont  au  sud  de 
ladite  riviere  d’Ergon£ 
appartiendront  a l’em- 
pereur  de  la  Chine ; et 
tout  ce  qui  est  au  nord 
demeurera  a l’empire  de 
Moscovie.  Toutes  les 
maisons  et  habitations 
qui  sont  presentement 
au  sud  de  ladite  riviere 
d’Ergon6,  a l’embouchure 
de  la  riviere  de  Meritken, 


the  Russian  river  Oud 
and  the  aforesaid  moun- 
tains— running  near  the 
Amoor  and  extending  to 
the  sea — which  are  now 
under  Chinese  rule,  the 
question  of  the  jurisdic- 
tion over  them  is  to 
remain  open.  On  this 
point  (Russian)  Ambas- 
sadors are  (at  present) 
without  explicit  instruc- 
tions from  the  Czar. 
Hereafter,  when  the 
Ambassadors  on  both 
sides  shall  have  returned 
(?  to  their  respective 
countries),  the  Czar  and 
the  Emperor  of  China 
(Han)  will  decide  the 
question  on  terms  of 
amity  either  by  sending 
Plenipotentiaries  or  by 
written  correspondence. 

Article  II. 

Similarly,  the  river 
Argun,  which  flows  into 
the  Amoor,  will  form  the 
frontier  along  its  whole 
length.  All  territory  on 
the  left  (?  right)  bank  is 
to  be  under  the  rule  of 
the  Emperor  of  China 
(Khan  of  Han) ; all  on 
the  right  (?  left)  bank 
will  be  included  in  the 
Empire  of  the  Czar.  All 
habitations  on  the  south 
side  will  be  transferred 
to  the  other. 


Article  II. 

The  Ergune  (Argun) 
River,  which  falls  into 
the  Amur,  shall  form  the 
boundary  (on  the  west). 
The  south  bank  shall 
belong  to  China,  the 
north  bank  to  Russia, 
and  the  Russian  resi- 
dences and  buildings  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Meilorko 
River,  on  the  south,  shall 
be  removed  to  the  north 
bank. 


138 


MANCHURIA 


seront  transposes  de 
l’autre  cote,  sur  le  bord 
septentrional  del’Ergone. 
(This  latter  paragraph  is 
the  same  as  Article  II.  of 
the  Russian  and  Chinese 
texts.) 

Article  II. 

La  forteresse  batie  par 
les  Moscovites,  dans  le 
lieu  nomine  Yacsa,  sera 
entierement  demolie ; et 
tous  les  sujets  de  l’empire 
de  Moscovie,  qui  demeu- 
rent  dans  ladite  forte- 
resse, seront  ramenes 
avec  tous  leurs  efifets  sur 
les  terres  appartenant  a 
la  couronne  de  Moscovie. 


Article  III. 

The  fortified  town  of 
Albazin,  built  by  His 
Majesty  the  Czar,  is  to  be 
completely  demolished, 
and  the  people  residing, 
with  all  their  military 
and  other  stores  and 
equipment,  are  to  be 
moved  into  Russian  terri- 
tory. Those  moved  can 
take  all  their  property 
with  them,  and  they  are 
not  to  be  allowed  to  suffer 
loss  (by  detention  of  any 
of  it). 


Article  III. 

The  walled  town  in  the 
Yacsa  country  under  the 
government  of  Russia 
shall  be  completely  de- 
molished, and  the  Rus- 
sian settlers  there  shall 
remove  all  their  property 
and  effects  to  the  Ch’a- 
han-han  country  without 
let  or  hindrance. 


Notwithstanding  the  various  discrepancies  which  occur  in 
the  three  texts  of  this  treaty,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the 
boundary  of  Russia  and  Northern  Manchuria  was  intended  to 
be  the  Argun  and  Gorbitza  rivers  and  the  Yablonoi  Mountains 
from  the  source  of  the  latter  river  to  the  sea.  Passing  over  the 
treaties  of  1727,  1768  and  1851,  which  do  not  concern  the 
boundaries  of  Russia  and  Northern  Manchuria,  I come  to  the 
Treaty  of  Aigun  (Ai-h’un),  concluded  in  May,  1858,  the  first 
article  of  which  deals  with  these  boundaries. 


French. 

Article  I. 

La  rive  gauche  du  fleuve  Amour,  a 
partir  de  la  riviere  Argoun  jusqu’a 
l’embouchure  de  l’Amour,  appartiendra 
a l’Empire  de  Russie,  et  sa  rive  droite, 
en  aval  jusqu’a  la  riviere  Oussouri, 


Chinese. 

Article  I. 

The  territory  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Amur  and  Sungari  rivers  from  the 
Ergune  River  (Argun)  to  the  sea-mouth 
of  the  Sungari  River  shall  belong  to 
Russia,  while  the  right  bank  down 


BOUNDARIES 


139 


appartiendra  a l’Empire  Ta-Tsing  ; les 
territoires  et  endroits  situes  entre  la 
riviere  Oussouri  et  la  mer,  comme 
jusqu’a  present  seront  possedes  en 
commun  par  l’Empire  Ta-Tsing  et 
1’ Empire  de  Russie,  en  attendant  que 
la  frontiere  entre  les  deux  Etats  y soit 
reglee.  La  navigation  de  l’Amour,  du 
Soungari  et  de  l’Oussouri  n’est  permise 
qu’aux  batiments  des  Empires  Ta- 
Tsing  et  de  la  Russie ; la  navigation 
de  ces  rivieres  sera  interdite  aux  bati- 
ments de  tout  autre  Etat.  Les  habi- 
tants Mantchous  6tablis  sur  la  rive 
gauche  de  l’Amour,  depuis  la  riviere 
Zeia  jusqu’au  village  de  Hormoldzin 
au  sud,  conserveront  a perp^tuite  les 
lieux  de  leurs  anciens  domiciles  sous 
l’administration  du  Gouvernement 
Mantchou,  et  les  habitants  Russes  ne 
pourront  leur  faire  aucune  offense  ni 
vexation. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  French  text  gives  the  Amur 
from  the  Argun  River  to  the  sea  as  the  northern  boundary  of 
Manchuria,  whereas  the  Chinese  text  cedes  the  left  banks  of 
the  Amur  and  the  Sungari  to  the  entrance  of  the  latter  into  the 
sea.  As,  however,  the  Sungari  enters  the  Amur  and  not  the 
sea,  and  as  Russia  has  not  claimed  the  left  bank  of  the  Sungari, 
it  may,  I think,  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  Sungari  has 
been  inserted  in  the  Chinese  text  by  mistake.  By  this  treaty, 
therefore,  the  whole  of  the  country  between  the  Yablonoi 
Mountains  and  the  Amur  fell  to  Russia,  and  the  territory 
between  the  Ussuri  and  the  sea  was  placed  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  both  countries,  pending,  according  to  the  French  text,  a 
delimitation  of  the  frontier.  The  Chinese  text  is  silent  on  the 
subject  of  this  delimitation  ; but  little  delay  occurred  in  giving 
effect  to  it,  for  in  November,  1860,  and  in  accordance  with 
Article  IX.  of  the  Treaty  concluded  at  Tientsin  on  the  13th 


river  to  the  Ussuri  River  shall  belong 
to  China,  and  the  country  between  the 
Ussuri  River  and  the  sea  shall,  as  in 
the  case  of  well-defined  neutral  ground 
between  two  countries,  be  held  in 
common  by  the  two  Empires.  Hence- 
forth the  Amur,  the  Sungari  and  the 
Ussuri  rivers  shall  be  open  to  the 
navigation  of  Russian  and  Chinese 
vessels,  but  not  to  the  vessels  of  other 
foreign  countries.  The  Manchu  in- 
habitants on  the  left  bank  of  the  Amur 
from  the  Ching  Chi  (Zeia)  River  south- 
wards to  the  village  of  Ho-erh-mo-lo- 
ching  (Hormoldzin)  shall  continue  to 
hold  their  villages  in  perpetuity  under 
the  Manchu  authorities,  and  the 
Russians  shall  live  on  friendly  terms 
with  them,  and  forbear  from  any  acts 
of  aggression. 


140 


MANCHURIA 


of  June,  1858,  a Supplementary  Treaty  was  made  at  Peking 
and  ratified  at  St.  Petersburg  in  December  of  the  same  year. 
Article  I.  of  this  treaty  defines  the  whole  of  the  frontier  line 
of  Russia  and  Manchuria  with  the  exception  of  the  western 
boundary  of  Northern  Manchuria,  already  defined  in  Article  II. 
of  the  Treaty  of  Nerchinsk. 


French. 

Article  I. 

Desormais  la  frontiere  Orientale 
entre  les  deux  Empires,  a commencer 
du  confluent  des  rivieres  Chilka  et 
Argoun,  descendra  le  cours  de  la 
riviere  Amour  jusqu’au  confluent  de 
la  riviere  Ousouri  avec  cette  derniere. 
Les  terres  situees  sur  la  rive  gauche 
(au  nord)  de  la  riviere  Amour  appar- 
tiennent  a l’Empire  de  Russie,  et  les 
terres  situees  sur  la  rive  droite  (au  sud), 
jusqu’au  confluent  de  la  riviere  Ousouri, 
appartiennent  a l’Empire  de  Chine. 
Plus  loin,  depuis  le  confluent  de  la 
riviere  Ousouri  jusqu’au  lac  Hinkal,  la 
ligne  frontiere  suit  les  rivieres  Ousouri 
et  Son’gatcha.  Les  terres  situees  sur 
la  rive  orientale  (droite)  de  ces  rivieres 
appartiennent  a l’Empire  de  Russie,  et 
sur  la  rive  occidentale  (gauche)  a 
l’Empire  de  Chine.  Plus  loin,  la  ligne 
frontiere  entre  les  deux  Empires,  depuis 
le  point  de  sortie  de  la  riviere  Son’gat- 
cha, coupe  le  lac  Hinkai,  et  se  dirige 
sur  la  riviere  B61en-ho  (Tour) ; depuis 
l’embouchure  de  cette  riviere  elle  suit 
la  crete  des  montagnes  jusqu’a  l’em- 
bouchure  de  la  riviere  Houpitou 
(Houptou),  et  de  la,  les  montagnes 
situees  entre  la  riviere  Khoun-tchoun 
et  la  mer  jusqu’a  la  riviere  Thou-men- 
kiang.  Le  long  de  cette  ligne,  egale- 
ment,  les  terres  situees  a l’est  appar- 
tiennent a l’Empire  de  Russie  et  celles 
a l’ouest  a 1’Empire  de  Chine.  La 


Chinese. 

Article  I. 

Henceforth  the  Eastern  frontier  of 
the  two  countries  shall  extend  from 
the  confluence  of  the  Shilka  and 
Ergune  (Argun)  rivers  down  the  Amur 
to  its  junction  with  the  Ussuri  River. 
The  country  to  the  north  belongs  to 
Russia,  and  that  to  the  south  as  far 
as  the  mouth  of  the  Ussuri  to  China. 
The  rivers  Ussuri  and  Sung-a-ch’a 
shall  be  the  boundary  of  the  two  coun- 
tries from  the  mouth  of  the  Ussuri 
southwards  to  Lake  Hinka.  The 
country  to  the  east  of  these  two  rivers 
belongs  to  Russia,  to  the  west  of  these 
two  rivers  to  China.  From  the  source 
of  the  Sung-a-ch’a  River  the  frontier 
line  of  the  two  countries  crosses  Lake 
Hinka  to  the  Pai-ling  River,  and  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Pai-ling  River  along 
a mountain  range  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Hu-pu-t’u  River,  and  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Hu-pu-t’u  River  down  the  Hun- 
ch’un  River  and  along  the  range  of 
mountains  between  that  river  and  the 
sea  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tumen  River. 
All  to  the  east  of  this  belongs  to 
Russia,  all  to  the  west  to  China.  The 
frontier  line  of  the  two  countries  meets 
the  Tumen  River  at  about  20  li  from 
its  mouth. 


BOUNDARIES 


141 


ligne  frontiere  s’appuie  a la  riviere 
Thou-men-kiang,  a 20  verstes  Chinoises 
(li)  au-dessus  de  son  embouchure  dans 
la  mer. 

In  1860,  therefore,  the  boundaries  of  Russia  and  Manchuria 
were  the  Ergune  (Argun)  River  on  the  west,  the  Amur  to  the 
Ussuri  on  the  north,  and  a line  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ussuri 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Tumen  on  the  east.  By  Article  I.  of  the 
Treaty  of  Aigun  (Ai-h’un)  the  Amur,  the  Sungari  and  the  Ussuri 
rivers  were  declared  open  to  the  navigation  of  Russian  and 
Chinese  vessels  only — to  the  exclusion  of  the  vessels  of  other 
foreign  countries ; and  this  stipulation,  without  any  mention  of 
the  exclusion  clause,  was  confirmed  by  Article  XVIII.  of  the 
Treaty  of  St.  Petersburg,  signed  in  February,  1881 ; but  since 
1689  the  whole  coast  line  of  Northern  and  Central  Manchuria 
has  bit  by  bit  fallen  into  the  hands  of  Russia,  and  the  only 
seaboard  now  remaining  to  the  whole  of  Manchuria  lies  between 
the  Ya-lu  River  ( i.e .,  Corea)  and  the  Chinese  province  of  Chihli. 

The  left  bank  of  the  Tumen  River  from  the  point  at  which 
the  Russian  and  Chinese  frontiers  meet  to  its  source  near  and  to 
the  south  of  the  Ch’ang-pai  Shan — the  most  famous  mountain  in 
this  part  of  the  country ; a line  from  the  source  of  the  Tumen 
to  the  source  of  the  Ya-lu  River,  which  rises  in  the  same  range 
of  mountains,  and  the  right  bank  of  the  Ya-lu  to  its  mouth 
constitute  the  remaining  boundaries  of  Manchuria  on  the  east 
and  south-east.  On  the  right  and  left  banks  of  the  Tumen  and 
Ya-lu  respectively  and  south  of  the  line  which  is  drawn  between 
their  sources  is  the  kingdom  of  Corea.  From  the  mouth  of  the 
Ya-lu  to  the  Great  Wall  Manchuria  is  bounded  on  the  south 
by  the  Yellow  Sea  and  the  Liao-tung  Gulf.  On  the  west  it  is 
bounded  by  the  north-eastern  comer  of  the  province  of  Chihli, 
Eastern  Mongolia  as  far  as  the  Dalai  Nor  Lake,  and  thence  to 
the  Amur  by  the  Argun  River  to  its  junction  with  the  Shilka. 


142 


MANCHURIA 


These  boundaries  include  an  area  of  about  360,000  square  miles, 
divided  into  three  provinces,  called  collectively,  from  their 
position  to  the  east  of  China  Proper,  the  Tung-san-sheng,  or 
“ Three  Eastern  Provinces,”  but  individually  known  as  Hei-lung- 
chiang  or  Tsitsihar,  Kirin  and  Feng-t’ien,  which  is  also  referred 
to  as  Sheng-king  and  Liao-tung.1  The  names  in  common  use, 
however,  are  Hei-lung-chiang,  Kirin  and  Feng-t’ien,  applied 
to  the  Northern,  Central  and  Southern  provinces  respectively, 
and  in  discussing  these  provinces  I shall  employ  these  three 
names  only,  and  spare  the  reader  the  necessity  of  remember- 
ing a number  of  designations  which,  in  the  case  of  those 
unacquainted  with  China  and  the  Chinese  language,  would 
inevitably  lead  to  confusion. 

Hei-lung-chiang,  the  Northern  province,  named  after  the 
Amur  River,2  which  previous  to  1858  flowed  through  it  instead 
of,  as  now,  forming  its  northern  and  eastern  boundary,  is 
separated  from  the  Trans-Baikal  province  of  Eastern  Siberia  by 
the  Argun  River  as  far  south  as  the  Dalai  Nor  Lake,  and  on 
the  west  from  Mongolia  by  a line  drawn  from  that  lake  to  the 
junction  of  the  Cholo  with  the  Nonni  River,  and  down  the  right 


1 The  capital  of  the  Southern  province,  generally  know  to  foreigners  by 
the  Manchu  name  Moukden,  is  called  by  the  Chinese  Shen-yang,  which  is  in 
reality  the  proper  designation  of  the  land  on  which  the  capital  is  built.  Sheng- 
king  is  more  applicable  to  the  capital  than  to  the  province,  which  is  correctly 
styled  Feng-t’ien,  while  Liao-tung  refers  to  that  part  of  the  province  which 
lies  to  the  east  of  the  Liao  River,  the  country  to  the  west  of  that  waterway 
being  known  as  Liao-hsi.  Although  the  Head  of  the  Provincial  Government 
resident  at  Moukden  is  Military  Governor  of  Sheng-king  and  other  parts 
(teng-ch’u),  he  is  at  the  same  time  Governor-General  of  the  province  of  Feng- 
t’ien. 

2 The  Amur  is  called  the  Hei-lung-chiang  (“  Black  Dragon  River  ”),  or 
simply  Hei  Ho  (“  Black  River  ”),  in  Chinese,  and  the  name  is  probably  attribut- 
able to  the  black  or  dark  peaty  brown  colour  of  its  waters  in  spring,  due  to  the 
melting  of  the  mountain  snows  and  of  the  thick  ice  which  blocks  navigation  for 
six  or  seven  months  of  the  year.  The  Chinese  name  of  the  Sungari  is  Sung-hua 
Chiang  (“  Pine-flower  ” or  “ Pine-decorated  River”). 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES 


143 


bank  of  the  latter  to  its  confluence  with  the  Sungari.  From 
this  point  the  Sungari  to  its  junction  with  the  Amur  forms  its 
southern  boundary.  Hei-lung-chiang  has  an  area  of  about 
190,000  square  miles  and  is  the  largest  of  the  three  provinces. 
In  the  west  a range  of  mountains,  called  the  Great  Hsing-an 
Range,  runs  north  and  south  from  the  Amur  into  Mongolia, 
and  in  lat.  48°  N.  and  long.  127°  E.  two  ranges,  known  as  the 
Little  Hsing-an,  meet,  one  going  north  to  the  west  of  Aigun, 
the  other  east  towards  the  junction  of  the  Sungari  and  the 
Amur.  From  these  lesser  ranges  branch  east  and  west  and 
north  and  south.  In  the  western  range,  and  about  sixty  miles 
from  the  Argun  River,  rises  the  Nonni,  the  most  important 
waterway  flowing  through  the  province.  On  its  way  to  the 
Sungari,  which  it  joins  at  Shui-shih-ying-tzu,  twenty  miles  to  the 
north  of  the  town  of  Petuna  (Hsin  Ctfeng),  it  passes  on  its  left 
bank  the  town  of  Mergen  and  Tsi-tsi-har,  known  to  the  Chinese 
as  Pu-k  ’uei,  the  capital  of  the  province.  It  is  navigable  by 
large  junks  from  the  Sungari  as  far  as  the  capital  and  by  junks 
of  light  draught  to  Mergen.  The  only  other  waterways  of  any 
importance  falling  from  the  north  into  the  Sungari  are  the 
Hulan  and  T’un  rivers.  A number  of  streams  flow  northwards 
into  the  Amur.  They  are  unnavigable,  but  of  considerable 
importance  commercially  on  account  of  the  gold  found  in  their 
sandy  beds.  The  Amur  and  the  Sungari  are  both  navigable, 
and  steamers  of  light  draught  ascend  the  former  from  Haba- 
rovsk,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Amur,  at  its  junction  with  the 
Ussuri,  to  Pokrovskaia,  a little  to  the  east  of  the  confluence  of 
the  Shilka  and  Argun,  whose  combined  waters  go  to  form  the 
Amur.  The  Shilka,  too,  is  navigated  by  steamers  as  far  as 
Stretensk,  and  in  favourable  seasons  to  Mitrofanov,  while  the 
Argun  is  also  navigated  for  over  700  versts,  or  460  miles.  The 
distance  from  Habarovsk  to  Stretensk  is  2,1 15  j versts,  or  1,407J 
miles,  and  to  Mitrofanov  2,252J  versts,  or  l,501f  miles,  and  if  to 


144 


MANCHURIA 


this  be  added  the  distance  (939§  versts)  from  Habarovsk  to 
Nikolaevsk,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Amur,  it  will  be  found  that 
the  Amur  and  the  Shilka  together  are  navigated  by  steamers 
for  3,192J  versts,  or  2,128J  miles.  The  Sungari,  which  falls  into 
the  Amur  241  versts,  or  160|  miles,  above  Habarovsk,  is  regularly 
navigated  by  steamers  from  its  mouth  to  Petuna,  a distance  of 
965  versts,  or  643J  miles,  and  I have  seen  a couple  of  steam 
launches  even  at  the  city  of  Kirin  itself.  The  navigation  on  all 
these  rivers  is  restricted  to  from  May  to  October,  for  during  the 
rest  of  the  year  they  are  ice-bound. 

The  mountain  ranges  of  Hei-lung-chiang,  which  are  mostly 
volcanic,  are  thickly  clad  with  forests,  and  the  agricultural  area 
is  as  yet  confined  to  the  river  valleys,  especially  those  of  the 
Nonni  and  Hulan.  A great  part  of  the  south-west  of  the  province 
is  occupied  by  Mongols,  who  graze  their  herds  on  the  grass- 
covered  steppes,  which  still  remain  untouched  by  the  hoe  of  the 
cultivator.  Much  of  this  virgin  soil  is  low  lying,  and  liable 
to  inundation  during  the  rainy  season  in  July  and  August. 
Emigrants  from  the  south  are,  however,  gradually  pushing 
northwards  in  spite  of  official  discouragement.  Hei-lung-chiang 
is  the  Tasmania  of  China,  and  the  unwilling  immigrants  are 
mostly  Manchus  who,  if  officials,  have  to  do  duty  on  the  post 
roads  at  their  own  expense  for  a certain  term  of  years,  and,  if 
common  people,  are  handed  over  as  slaves  to  the  Manchu  in- 
habitants, or  left  to  find  their  own  livelihood  under  official 
surveillance.  As  a rule,  the  ordinary  criminals  banished  to 
Hei-lung-chiang  never  leave  the  province  : many  of  them  escape 
and  turn  brigands,  terrorising  and  plundering  the  peaceably 
disposed  traders  and  farmers.  Criminal  officials,  on  the  other 
hand,  sent  to  do  duty  in  Hei-lung-chiang,  usually  succeed,  after 
serving  a portion  of  their  sentence,  in  having  the  remainder 
remitted  in  consideration  of  a money  payment  for  each  year 
of  the  term  unexpired.  I shall  have  occasion  to  refer  to  the 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES  145 

subject  of  brigandage  later:  suffice  it  to  say  in  this  place  that 
it  is  the  scourge  of  this,  and  of  Kirin,  the  Central,  province.  A 
considerable  part  of  the  steppes  of  this  province  is,  however, 
impregnated  with  soda  and  other  salts  and  is  unfit  for  cultivation. 
The  extraction  of  the  soda  is  an  industry  of  Hei-lung-chiang, 
and  the  surplus  manufactured  article  in  the  form  of  bricks  or 
cakes  is  brought  down  to  Tientsin  and  Newchwang,  whence  it  is 
exported  principally  for  use  in  the  native  dyeing  and  silk-reeling 
establishments  in  Northern  China.  The  province  is  rich  in  gold 
in  the  north-west,  north  and  east,  on  the  banks  of  the  Amur 
and  in  the  beds  of  its  tributaries.  The  Mo-ho  mines,  where  a 
native  company,  under  Government  license,  has  been  at  work 
since  1888,  are  the  best  known  of  the  gold  mines  near  the 
Amur.  They  are  70  li , or  about  23  miles,  south  of  the  village 
of  Mo-ho,  and  lie  on  the  banks  of  a streamlet  flowing  into 
a small  river  which  joins  the  Amur  just  below  the  Russian 
village  of  Albazin.  Other  mining  camps  on  the  south  bank 
of  the  Amur  are  T’ai-p’ing-k’ou,  between  the  Russian  villages  of 
Hingan  and  Pompeevka,  and  Kuan-yin-shan,  opposite  Raddevka. 
Previous  to  1888  gold  washing  was  clandestinely  carried  on,  and 
trouble  arose  owing  to  a large  number  of  Russian  subjects 
crossing  the  Amur  and  taking  part  in  it.  It  was  promptly 
suppressed  by  the  Hei-lung-chiang  authorities  in  1887,  and  the 
mining  was  thereafter  placed  under  Government  control.  A 
consignment  of  arms  and  ammunition  was  brought  to  Newchwang 
in  1896  under  official  pass  by  steamer  from  Tientsin  for  con- 
veyance to  the  mines  to  ensure  more  efficient  protection,  and 
when  I visited  Mo-ho  during  the  present  year  I was  informed 
by  the  villagers  that  additional  soldiers  were  expected  to  arrive 
soon.  Gold  is  also  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Sungari,  and 
I shall  refer  to  this  when  I come  to  deal  with  the  province 
of  Kirin.  Copper  and  lead  are  also  said  to  be  found  in  the 

Northern  and  Central  provinces  of  Manchuria;  but,  so  far  as 

10 


146 


MANCHURIA 


Hei-lung-chiang  is  concerned,  no  locality  is  mentioned.  Game 
abounds  in  the  mountains  and  on  the  steppes,  and  includes  the 
tiger,  bear,  leopard,  deer,  antelope,  roe-deer  and  wild  boar. 
Such  animals,  again,  as  the  sable,  squirrel,  weasel,  land-otter, 
wolf,  hare,  badger,  wild-cat  and  fox  are  hunted  for  their  skins. 
Then  comes  winged  game,  including  bustard,  swan,  goose,  duck, 
black-grouse,  wood-cock,  partridge,  pheasant,  snipe  and  quail. 
It  sounds  an  excellent  ground  for  the  shikari , who,  however,  runs 
the  danger  of  himself  being  hunted  down  by  brigands  or  eaten 
up  by  venomous  midges,  mosquitoes  and  gadflies.  Herds  of 
ponies,  cattle,  pigs  and  sheep  graze  on  the  grassy  steppes. 
From  the  above  it  will  be  concluded  that  the  area  under  cul- 
tivation in  the  province  of  Hei-lung-chiang  is  not  very  extensive, 
and  such  is  the  case.  Agriculture  is  at  present  confined  for  the 
most  part  to  the  small  river  valleys — in  other  words,  to  the 
country  taken  up  by  the  Chinese  colonists,  who  are  gradually 
pushing  their  way  northwards  and  settling  down  on  this  virgin 
soil.  But  with  agriculture  I shall  deal  afterwards,  under  the 
head  of  “ Agricultural  Products  The  Amur  and  the  Sungari 
and  their  tributaries  teem  with  a great  variety  of  fish,  including 
the  sturgeon  and  trout,  and  in  the  autumn  with  incredible  shoals 
of  a species  of  salmon  called  tamara , which  ascends  these  rivers 
to  spawn. 

Kirin,  the  Central  province,  lies  to  the  south  of  Hei-lung- 
chiang,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  a part  of  Mongolia, 
the  Sungari  from  its  junction  with  the  Nonni  to  its  mouth, 
and  by  the  Amur  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ussuri ; on  the  east  by 
the  Ussuri  and  its  tributary  the  Sung-a-ch’a  to  its  source,  thence 
by  a line  drawn  to  Lake  Hinka  and  across  the  lake  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Pai-ling  River,  by  a range  of  mountains  lying 
between  that  point  and  the  mouth  of  the  Hu-pu-t’u,  an  affluent 
of  the  Sui-fen  River,  which  enters  the  bay  on  which  Vladivostock 
is  situated,  by  a line  from  the  mouth  of  the  Hu-pu-Pu  to  the 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES 


147 


Hun-ch’un  River,  by  the  latter  as  far  as  a range  of  mountains 
lying  between  the  Hun-ch’un  River  and  the  sea,  and  by  this 
range  to  a point  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tumen  River  twenty 
Chinese  li  from  its  mouth ; on  the  south  by  the  Tum&n  River 
to  its  source,  thence  by  a line  to  the  source  of  the  Ya-lu,  and 
by  that  river  to  the  village  of  Mao-erh-shan,  which  lies  on  the 
right  bank  and  within  the  southern  province  of  Feng-t’ien ; on 
the  south-west  by  a line  running  north-west  from  east  of  Mao- 
erh-shan  to  the  immediate  south  of  Wei-yuan-p’u-men  in  the 
Eastern  Palisade,  and  to  the  north  of  the  district  city  of 
K’ai-yuan,  where  one  of  the  final  struggles  between  the  Chinese 
and  the  Manchus  took  place ; and  on  the  west  by  part  of  the 
province  of  Feng-t’ien  and  Mongolia. 

Kirin  has  an  area  of  about  110,000  square  miles.  Its  capital, 
also  called  Kirin  or  Ch’uan-ch’ang  (“Dockyard”),  lies  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Sungari  in  lat.  48°  49'  N.  and  long.  126°  46' 
27"  E.  The  province  is  divided  into  three  parts  by  the  Sungari, 
the  Hurka  and  the  Ussuri.  I have  already  referred  to  the 
navigability  of  the  Sungari,  and  steamers  ascend  the  Ussuri  to 
Iman,  380  versts,  or  253J  miles,  from  Habarovsk  at  its  mouth. 
By  Article  I.  of  the  Treaty  of  Aigun,  quoted  above,  the 
navigation  of  the  Amur,  Sungari  and  Ussuri  is  restricted  to 
Russian  and  Chinese  vessels.  The  number  of  steam-vessels 
engaged  in  towing  and  carrying  passengers  on  these  three 
rivers  above  Habarovsk  is  placed  at  one  hundred  and  twenty, 
whereof  eighteen  fly  the  flag  of  the  Chinese  Eastern  Railway 
Company,  consisting  of  the  Chinese  flag  with  the  Russian 
flag  inserted  in  one  of  the  corners,  while  the  balance  of  over 
one  hundred  fly  the  Russian  flag.  I can  safely  say  that 
along  the  whole  course  of  the  Amur  I noticed  little  more 
than  half  a dozen  Chinese  junks  in  May  and  June  of  the 
present  year.  The  section  of  the  province  to  the  west  of  the 
Sungari — an  eastern  prolongation  of  the  Mongolian  steppes — 


148 


MANCHURIA 


consists  for  the  most  part  of  fine  level  loamy  soil  well  under 
cultivation  and  forming,  so  far  as  agriculture  is  concerned,  the 
richest  part  of  the  province.  This  section  contains  the  most 
important  commercial  mart  of  Manchuria — the  city  of  K\ian- 
ch’eng-tzu  or  Oh’ang-ch’un  Fu,  which  lies  eighty  miles  west  of 
the  capital,  and  is  the  collecting  and  distributing  centre  for 
exports  from  and  imports  to  Hei-lung-chiang  and  Northern 
Kirin.  Much  of  the  northern  part  of  the  section  between  the 
Upper  Sungari  and  the  Hurka  is  still  virgin  steppe  awaiting 
the  hand  of  the  Chinese  cultivator,  who  is  displacing  the 
indolent  and  less  practical  Manchu  farmer  and  trader  through- 
out Manchuria.  In  the  river  valleys  the  husbandman  is  at 
work,  but  the  south  is  given  up  to  the  Chinese  trapper, 
lumberer,  ginseng  collector  and  grower  and  the  hunter  for 
gold,  who,  scattered  about  among  the  Ch’ang-pai-shan  ranges, 
are  unfettered  by  Government  control.  The  highest  point  of 
this  range  is  the  Ch,ang-(or  Lao-)pai-shan,  i.e .,  “Ever  (or  Old) 
White  Mountain  ” (8,000  feet),  so  called  from  the  pumice  which 
suiTOunds  its  crater,  wherein  is  a lake  some  six  or  seven  miles 
in  circumference  more  than  300  feet  below  the  summit.  The 
other  lakes  of  Kirin  are  part  of  Lake  Hinka  and  the  A-pu  Lake 
(Lake  Birten),  through  which  the  headwaters  of  the  Hurka 
flow  to  the  south-west  of  Ninguta.  The  Ever- White  Mountain 
is  held  sacred  by  the  Manchu  dynasty  as  the  reputed  birthplace 
of  its  founder  Nurhachu.  It  is,  however,  no  myth  to  say  that 
it  is  the  birthplace  of  three  rivers — the  Sungari,  the  Ya-lu  and 
the  Tumen.  The  section  between  the  Hurka  and  the  Ussuri 
is  far  less  developed  and  cultivated  than  the  section  between 
the  Sungari  and  the  Hurka.  The  right  bank  of  the  former, 
from  the  mouth  of  the  latter  eastward,  is  inhabited  to  a great 
extent  by  the  Yu-p’i-ta-tzu,  or  Fish-skin  Tartars,  who  derive 
their  name  from  their  clothing,  which  they  manufacture  from 
the  skins  of  the  Tamara  salmon.  Here,  however,  the  banks  of 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES 


149 


the  Sungari  are  rich  in  gold,  especially  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  town  of  Sang-sing,  which  lies  to  the  east  of  the  Hurka  at 
its  junction  with  the  Sungari.  When  in  Kirin  in  1896  I met,  and 
had  a long  conversation  with,  a Taotai  who  was  on  his  way  to 
San-sing  to  take  up  an  appointment  as  director  of  a gold-mining 
company  under  Government  license,  and  I have  since  heard  that 
the  results  obtained  by  the  company  from  washings  average 
about  thirty-six  Chinese  ounces,  or  three  lb.  avoirdupois,  per 
day — sufficient  to  pay  the  wages  of  the  employes,  ensure  the 
necessary  protection  to  the  workers,  and  leave  a margin  of  profit 
to  the  shareholders.  Gold  is  also  worked  on  the  Upper  Sun- 
gari, in  the  valleys  of  the  affluents  of  the  Ya-lu  near  its  source, 
and  on  both  banks  of  the  Hurka.  Silver,  associated  with  lead 
and  copper,  is  worked  in  the  south  of  the  province.  Coal  is 
found  in  many  places  in  Kirin,  and  in  the  capital  it  is  placed 
in  the  market  at  from  six  to  twelve  shillings  a ton  according 
to  quality.  The  inferior  quality  is  very  soft  and  burns  rapidly. 
It  comes  down  the  Sungari.  Coal  is  also  found  in  the  south- 
east and  in  the  west  of  the  province,  and  the  Kirin  Coal  Com- 
pany, which  is  under  Government  auspices,  has  opened  up  mines 
in  the  west  at  a place  distant  twenty  miles  from  Tung-chiang- 
tzu,  the  highest  navigated  point  on  the  Liao  River,  on  which 
the  port  of  Newchwang  stands.  Foreign  plant  was  purchased 
for  the  purpose,  and  was  transported  into  the  interior  by  cart 
during  the  winter  of  1897-98.  The  usual  trees  met  with  by 
the  traveller  in  Kirin  are  the  willow  and  elm,  with  scrub-oak 
on  the  low  hills  and  a sprinkling  of  pine ; but  the  mountains  of 
the  province  are  covered  with  valuable  forests  of  oak,  elm,  pine, 
walnut,  birch,  spruce  and  plane,  with  dense  undergrowth.  The 
great  lumber  market  of  Manchuria  is  Ta-tung-Uou,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Ya-lu  near  its  mouth,  whither  huge  logs  from  the 
Ch’ang-pai-shan  ranges  find  their  way  down  that  river  and  its 
tributaries,  especially  the  Hun  or  Tung-hua  Chiang.  Much  red 


150 


MANCHURIA 


and  yellow  pine  is  floated  down  the  Sungari  to  the  capital,  where 
it  is  used  not  only  for  junk-building,  but  also,  owing  to  its 
comparative  cheapness,  for  the  gigantic  fencing  of  houses  and 
compounds.  On  the  left  bank  of  the  Sungari  at  Kirin  I noticed 
several  large  caravansaries  closely  surrounded  by  stout  logs 
of  pine  frozen  vertically  in  the  ice  and  as  high  as  a hoarding 
at  home.  As  might  naturally  be  expected,  these  forests  afford 
cover  to  game  of  all  kinds,  from  the  tiger  and  bear  downwards. 
Wild  boar,  deer,  antelope,  pheasant  and  partridge  were  all 
exposed  for  sale  in  a frozen  state  in  the  streets  of  Kirin  during 
my  stay  there.  Nor  should  I omit  to  mention  a great  variety 
of  fish  from  the  Sungari,  which  lay  about  in  frozen  heaps.  Of 
these  we  found  the  sturgeon  excellent  eating.  The  game  and 
fish  remain  good  throughout  the  winter,  and  I afterwards  saw 
them  in  many  places  through  which  we  passed. 

Feng-t’ien,  the  Southern  province,  although  the  smallest  of 
the  three — having  an  area  of  about  60,000  square  miles — is, 
owing  to  its  proximity  to  China,  comparatively  well  developed, 
and  as  it  is  the  only  province  now  possessing  a seaboard,  and  a 
consequent  outlet  for  nearly  the  whole  produce  of  Manchuria, 
its  importance  from  a commercial  standpoint  will  be  readily 
recognised.  The  boundary  on  the  east  is  the  Ya-lu  from  east 
of  Mao-erh-shan  to  its  mouth;  on  the  south  are  the  Yellow 
Sea,  the  Liao-tung  Gulf  as  far  west  as  Shan-hai-kuan,  and  part 
of  the  province  of  Chihli ; on  the  west  are  Chihli  and  Mongolia, 
and  on  the  north  part  of  Mongolia  and  Kirin.  A range  of 
hills  starting  in  the  south  of  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula  and 
running  north-east  to  the  province  of  Kirin  divides  F£ng-t’ien 
into  two  parts — the  western  or  level,  and  the  eastern  or  hilly 
section.  In  the  latter  a number  of  ranges  extending  to  the 
Ya-lu  run  from  the  south  of  the  province  parallel  to  this  range, 
while  the  western  section  forms  the  valleys  of  the  Liao,  the 
most  important  commercial  waterway  in  Manchuria,  which, 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES 


151 


rising  in  Mongolia,  where  it  is  known  as  the  Sira-muren,  flows 
south  by  west  into  the  Liao-tung  Gulf,  passing  on  its  left  bank 
at  a few  miles  from  its  mouth  the  open  port  of  Newchwang — 
called  locally  Ying-kow  and  Ying-tzu — of  the  Hun  River,  the 
Liao’s  most  important  tributary,  and  of  several  smaller  rivers 
which  also  flow  into  the  Liao-tung  Gulf  between  the  Liao 
itself  and  the  Chinese  frontier. 

There  are  sulphur  and  other  mineral  springs  between  Hai- 
ch’eng  and  Liao-yang  and  in  several  other  places  in  the  province, 
but  the  sulphur  is  not  extracted. 

The  hills  of  Feng-t’ien  are  rich  in  carboniferous  strata,  more 
especially  in  the  centre  of  the  province  to  the  east  of  the  high- 
road between  the  port  of  Newchwang  and  Moukden.  The 
coal  mined  there,  called  Liao-yang  coal,  from  the  name  of  the 
sub-prefecture  within  which  it  is  found,  is  declared  to  be  equal 
to  the  best  Cardiff*,  and  it  is  certainly  excellent,  but,  owing  to 
the  constant  flooding  of  the  mines  during  the  rainy  season  and 
the  absence  of  pumping  gear,  the  price  per  ton  laid  down  at 
the  port  has  risen  from  $7  in  1893  to  $14  (about  £1  8s.), 
which  is  altogether  prohibitive  and  bars  all  possibility  of  export. 
Coal  also  exists  in  the  hills  to  the  north-east  of  Moukden,  in 
the  west  where  the  coal  measures  of  Chihli  extend  into  F&ng- 
t’ien,  and  in  the  east  and  south  of  the  province.  Peat  is  also 
found  in  the  east  of  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula.  Iron  is  worked 
within  the  district  of  T’ieh-ling,  forty  miles  north  by  east  of 
Moukden  and  in  proximity  to  coal,  as  well  as  in  other  parts 
of  the  province ; but  the  large  supply  of  cheap  old  foreign  iron 
which  finds  its  way  into  Manchuria  through  the  port  of  New- 
chwang competes  successfully  with  the  native  manufacture. 
Gold  exists  in  F£ng-Fien,  and  works  have  been  opened  and 
abandoned : but  it  does  not  follow  that  lack  of  gold  is  the 
cause  of  the  failure.  One  of  the  difficulties  under  which  gold- 
mining labours  in  Manchuria  recently  came  to  my  notice.  The 


152 


MANCHURIA 


gold-mining  company  at  San-sing,  in  the  Kirin  province,  to 
which  I have  referred  above,  had  in  its  employ  and  for  its 
protection  a force  of  200  cavalry  and  700  infantry.  Two  of 
the  cavalry  officers  were  captured  by  brigands,  who  demanded 
for  their  release  a ransom  of  300  and  200  ounces  of  gold-dust 
respectively.  Is  it  likely,  therefore,  that  where  a protected 
company  is  attacked,  private  enterprise  could  succeed  ? An 
inferior  kind  of  jade  stone  is  quarried  within  the  district  of 
Hsiu-yen,  some  sixty  miles  to  the  south-east  of  the  port  of 
Newchwang,  and  is  exported  in  small  quantities  in  the  shape 
of  carved  ornaments.  The  hills  to  the  east  and  south  are  of 
igneous  formation,  and  excellent  granite  can  be  had.  Towards 
the  Ya-lu  and  to  the  north-east  there  are  forests  of  splendid 
timber,  affording  cover  to  game  of  all  kinds.  Along  the 
seaboard  from  the  Ya-lu  to  Shin-hai-kuan  there  are,  in  addition 
to  Newchwang,  a number  of  ports,  some  of  them  open  all  the 
year  round,  where  a considerable  trade  is  carried  on  by  native 
shipping.  I shall  have  occasion  to  refer  to  this  subject  at 
greater  length  under  the  head  of  “ Trade  ”. 

The  climate  of  Manchuria  may  be  described  as  extreme. 
In  the  Hei-lung-chiang  province  the  temperature  falls  as  low 
as  49°  below  zero  (Fahrenheit)  in  winter,  and  rises  as  high  as  90° 
in  summer.  On  the  morning  of  the  19th  of  January,  1896, 
whilst  I was  in  Kirin,  the  temperature  fell  to  - 34°  in  that  city, 
and  the  average  minimum  from  the  15th  to  the  28th  of  January 
was  - 20°.  The  maximum  temperature  in  summer  is  about  95°. 
In  Moukden  the  lowest  reading  in  winter  is  about  - 28°,  and  the 
highest  in  summer  about  96°.  In  the  port  of  Newchwang  the 
temperature  was  once  as  low  as  - 17°  during  the  winter  of  1894- 
95,  but  in  1895-96  it  only  fell  once  below  zero ; in  summer  it 
rarely  exceeds  85°.  From  the  beginning  of  December  to  the 
end  of  March  all  water-borne  traffic  ceases  to  the  north  of 
Newchwang,  the  whole  country  being  ice-bound  during  these 


CLIMATE 


153 


four  months.1  The  ports  in  the  south  of  the  Liao-tung  Penin- 
sula are,  however,  open  all  the  year  round.  In  the  north  of 
Manchuria  snow  falls  to  a depth  of  two  or  three  feet,  while  in 
Newchwang  it  rarely  exceeds  twelve  inches.  The  summer  heat 
of  Manchuria  is  dry  and  easily  endured,  but  the  winter  cold  is 
intense,  especially  when  a north-east  wind  blows.  The  rainfall 
is  small,  usually  averaging  about  thirteen  inches,  half  of  which 
falls  as  a rule  in  the  months  of  July  and  August.2  When  the 
country  is  ice-bound  the  roads  in  the  interior,  bad  at  their 
best,  are  suitable  for  cart  traffic ; when  it  begins  to  thaw,  and 

1 On  the  Amur,  in  May,  I noticed  blocks  of  ice  on  the  river  banks,  and 
piled  up  in  shallows  from  eight  to  ten  feet  thick,  and  the  following  table  gives  the 
results  of  observations  on  the  thickness  of  ice  on  the  Liao  River  at  Newchwang 
during  the  years  1897  to  1900. 


Thickness  in  inches  of  ice  in  the  river  at  Newchwang,  1897-1900. 

Year. 

Date. 

Maximum.  ' 

Minimum. 

Mean. 

• 

Remarks. 

1897  j 

28  Jan. 

16-5 

XI*5 

I4‘°  ’ 



11  Feb. 

20*0 

17-0 

18-5 

— 

20  „ 

r9’5 

J4‘5 

l6-5 

— 

2 Mar. 

i8‘o 

15-0 

i6’9 

— 

12  „ 

12*0 

io*5 

11*2 

Ice  broke  up  16th  March. 

1898 

13  Jan. 

ig’o 

16-5 

17*8 

— 

9 Feb. 

20*0 

15*5 

17-9 

— 

22  „ 

21’5 

18-0 

20*3 

— 

2 Mar. 

23*5 

ig’o 

21-4 

— 

14  » 

22'0 

ig-o 

20*1 

— 

24  „ 

23-0 

19*0 

22*0 

— 

29  „ 

ig-o 

16*0 

18-3 

Ice  broke  up  2nd  April. 

1899 

13  Feb. 

17-0 

10-5 

15-6 

— 

2 Mar. 

17*0 

9-0 

I2-6 

Ice  broke  up  10th  March. 

1900 

15  Jan. 

23-0 

13*5 

17*1 

1 

— 

9 Feb. 

22’8 

19-5 

21-3 

— 

20  „ 

23*0 

20*0 

217 

— 

27  » 

23 ‘5 

21*5 

22*5 

— 

6 Mar. 

24*0 

20*0 

21’6 

— 

15  » 

21  ‘0 

i8*o 

ig-8 

— 

20  „ 

18*0 

1475 

167 

Ice  broke  up  23rd  March. 

8 In  Appendix  I.  will  be  found  a tabulated  record  of  meteorological  observa- 
tions made  at  Newchwang  for  the  year  from  September  7th,  1896,  to  September 
6th,  1897. 


154 


MANCHURIA 


during  the  rainy  season,  the  soft  loam  of  which  they  are 
composed  (I  do  not  say  made,  for  that  would  be  a departure 
from  truth)  becomes  a veritable  quagmire,  wherein  animals  are 
frequently  suffocated  or  drowned.  Climate,  therefore,  has  a 
very  important  influence  on  the  traffic  of  Manchuria,  as  I hope 
to  show  later  when  I come  to  deal  with  the  trade  of  the 
country,  and  it  will  continue  to  exercise  that  influence  until 
railways  connect  the  three  provinces  and  bring  the  remote 
districts  of  Hei-lung-chiang  within  as  many  hours  of  the 
Yellow  Sea  or  Liao-tung  Gulf  as  they  now  are  days. 


CHAPTER  VI 


PEOPLE  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

IT  is  not  my  intention  to  write  a history  of  the  Manchus — 
of  their  origin,  their  rise  and  their  conquests.  The  student 
of  history  will  find  all  these  details  elsewhere.  What  I wish  to 
do  is  to  lay  before  the  reader  a picture  of  Manchuria  of  to-day 
— of  its  people,  administration,  products,  industries  and  trade, 
to  call  attention  to  its  capabilities  and  resources,  and  to  show 
how  these  capabilities  and  resources  may  be  utilised  and 
developed.  In  the  preceding  chapter  I have  dealt  with  its 
boundaries,  physical  features  and  climate,  and  in  the  present 
chapter  I propose  to  discuss  the  people  and  administration  of 
Manchuria. 

Of  the  17,000,000  inhabitants  of  the  three  provinces  of 
Manchuria  probably  not  more  than  ten  per  cent,  are  Manchus, 
and  by  Manchus  I mean  not  merely  the  descendants  of  the 
various  tribes  which  were  welded  into  one  kingdom  by  Nurhachu, 
but  also  the  descendants  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Northern 
province  of  Hei-lung-chiang,  which  was  not  brought  completely 
under  the  sway  of  the  present  dynasty  until  1671,  as  well  as 
the  descendants,  called  Han-Chun,  of  the  northern  Chinese,  who 
assisted  the  Manchus  in  the  conquest  of  China.  All  these — 
Manchus,  Han-Chun,  as  well  as  the  descendants  of  Mongols,  who 
also  lent  their  aid — are  known  by  the  generic  name  of  Ch’i  Jen, 
or  Bannermen.  When  the  Manchus  conquered  the  Chinese 
the  great  mass  of  the  conquerors  remained  in  China,  where  they 

were  required  to  garrison  their  newly-acquired  territory,  and 

(155) 


156 


MANCHURIA 


even  now  there  are  Manchu  garrisons  in  several  provinces  of  the 
Empire.  The  descendants  of  those  who  stayed  at  home  are 
scattered  over  Manchuria  from  the  Yellow  Sea  to  the  Amur ; 
but  the  vast  majority  are  to  be  found  in  the  two  provinces  of 
Hei-lung-chiang  and  Kirin.  There  are,  however,  certain  places 
in  Feng-t’ien,  such  as  Fu  Chou  and  Hsiung-yiieh  (Hsiung-yao) 
in  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula,  where  Bannermen  predominate,  and 
in  the  chief  Government  centres,  especially  the  capitals  of  the 
three  provinces — Moukden,  Kirin  and  Tsitsihar  (Pu-k’uei) — 
they  are  comparatively  numerous.  Mongols  are  sparsely  scattered 
about  in  the  south-west  of  Hei-lung-chiang  and  in  the  north- 
west of  Kirin,  but  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  seventeen  millions  of 
Manchuria  are  composed  of  the  descendants  of  Chinese  who  had 
already  settled  in  Southern  Manchuria  during  the  Ming  dynasty, 
and  of  immigrants  from  the  northern  provinces  of  China,  who 
are  annually  on  the  increase. 

Some  people  profess  to  be  able  to  see  at  a glance  numerous 
ethnological  points  of  difference  between  Manchus  and  Chinese. 
If  they  are  right  my  powers  of  observation  must  be  exceedingly 
limited,  for  I am  bound  to  confess  that,  in  spite  of  frequent 
opportunities  for  comparison,  I am  unable  to  distinguish  a 
Manchu  from  a Chinese  gentleman.  They  dress  alike,  and  to 
all  outward  appearance  they  are  members  of  the  same  family. 
With  the  other  sex  it  is  different.  There  can  be  no  mistake 
about  a Manchu  lady.  Her  erect  carriage,  due,  no  doubt,  to 
her  natural  feet,  her  distinctive  coiffure  and  dress1  at  once 

1 “ The  dress  of  Manchu  women  is  in  all  its  main  points  very  similar  to  that 
of  men — the  same  underclothing  and  similar  loose  flowing  robes.  Of  these 
latter  there  are  two,  which  differ  slightly  one  from  the  other,  the  inner  robe 
(ch’eti  i)  having  an  unbroken  skirt,  and  opening  merely  at  the  throat  with  a 
breast  lappet  fastening  down  the  left  side  ; the  outer  robe  (ch’ang  i)  is  similarly 
made,  but  has  an  opening  (k'ai  chieh)  on  either  side,  extending  from  the  waist 
down  to  the  hem.  These  robes  being  of  figured  gauze,  silk  or  satin,  with  a 
deep  border  of  embroidery — some  four  inches  wide — running  along  the  skirt  and 


r 


MANCHU  LADY  AND  CHINESE  SERVANT 


PEOPLE  AND  ADMINISTRATION  157 


mark  her  as  non-Chinese.  Notwithstanding  her  erect  carriage, 
however,  her  gait  is  slovenly,  and  is  due  to  the  thick  inelastic 
soles  of  her  shoes.  These  traits  are,  properly  speaking,  not 
ethnological  distinctions ; but  I have  always  been  struck  by  the 
independent  bearing  and  sprightliness  of  the  Manchu  lady  in 
contrast  to  the  timidity  and  insipidity  of  her  Chinese  sister. 

Intellectually,  however,  the  Manchu  is  no  match  for  the 
Chinese.  The  former  lacks  the  intelligence  and  capacity  which 
are  characteristic  of  the  latter,  and  the  recent  replacing  in  many 
of  the  higher  offices  of  the  Empire  of  Chinese  by  Manchus 
cannot  fail  to  be  detrimental  to  the  best  interests  of  the  country. 
As  merchant  or  farmer,  too,  the  Manchu  lacks  the  business 
qualities  and  industry  of  the  Chinese.  This  intellectual  in- 
feriority is  due,  in  the  main,  to  the  grant  by  the  State  to  the 
majority  of  Manchus  of  mature  age  of  a monthly  subsidy  which, 

central  and  side  openings,  present  a very  handsome  appearance,  which  is 
increased  by  the  deep  cuffs,  usually  of  some  light-coloured  silk,  in  contrast  with 
the  dark  texture  of  the  robe,  embroidered  in  light  colours  with  flowers  or  butter- 
flies. Their  feet  are  of  the  natural  size,  the  shoes  worn  by  those  who  have  to 
go  about  on  foot  being  much  like  men’s  ordinary  shoes,  of  silk  and  satin 
embroidered,  with  flat  soles.  In  the  case  of  ladies,  however,  who  when  they 
go  out  do  so  in  a chair  or  cart,  the  shoes  stand  upon  a sole  of  four  or  six  inches 
in  height,  or  even  more.  These  soles,  which  consist  of  a wooden  frame  upon 
which  white  cotton  cloth  is  stretched,  are  quite  thin  from  the  toe  and  heel  to 
about  the  centre  of  the  foot,  when  they  curve  abruptly  downwards,  forming  a 
base  of  two  or  three  inches  square.  In  use  they  are  exceedingly  inconvenient, 
but,  like  the  long  nails,  with  their  metal  sheaths  of  gold  or  silver,  affected  by 
Chinese  ladies,  they  show  the  well-to-do  position  of  the  wearer.  The  Manchus 
are  naturally  a taller  and  finer  race  than  the  Chinese,  and  the  artificial  increase 
to  the  height  afforded  by  these  shoes  gives  them  at  times  almost  startling 
proportions. 

“ There  is  little  difference  between  the  private  dress  of  ordinary  Manchu 
women  and  that  of  those  belonging  to  the  official  class.  The  latter,  however, 
always  have  the  two  robes  above  described,  while  the  former  frequently,  in  lieu 
of  the  outer  robe,  wear  a sleeveless  bodice,  either  long,  and  reaching  to  the 
skirt  of  the  robe  ( kua  la'rh),  or  short,  to  the  waist  only  [Van  ch’ien),  with  an 
embroidered  border  round  the  edges.” — Illustrated  Catalogue  of  the  Chinese 
Collection  of  Exhibits  for  the  International  Health  Exhibition,  London,  1884, 
pp.  13,  14. 


158 


MANCHURIA 


while  keeping  them  from  actual  want,  precludes  that  stimulus 
to  earn  a livelihood  and  better  their  condition  which  goes  to 
make  men  and  nations.  In  return  for  this  subsidy  the  Govern- 
ment exacts  a certain  amount  of  military  training  from  the 
recipients  and  their  enrolment  as  reservists;  but  the  system 
does  serious  harm,  for  it  prevents  the  pensioner  from  leaving 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  pension  office  and  turns  him  into  a 
loafer,  unless,  indeed,  he  chooses  the  army  as  a profession  and 
draws  the  pay  of  a regular.  There  are,  for  example,  many 
Bannermen  in  the  employ  of  foreigners  at  Peking ; but,  as  there 
is  considerable  difficulty  in  drawing  the  Government  subsidy  in 
absentia , they  are,  as  a rule,  unwilling  to  take  service  elsewhere 
even  at  considerably  enhanced  pay. 

The  Manchu  language,  unlike  the  Chinese,  has  no  antiquity 
to  boast  of,  and,  at  the  present  time,  it  is  to  all  intents  and 
purposes  a thing  of  the  past.  In  the  remote  corners  of  the 
provinces  of  Kirin  and  Hei-lung-chiang,  where  Tartar  tribes 
have  kept  themselves  isolated  and  beyond  the  tide  of  Chinese 
immigration,  it  is  still  spoken,  and  proclamations  in  Chinese 
and  Manchu  are  met  with ; but,  with  this  exception,  Northern 
Chinese  is  now  the  language  of  Manchuria.  It  is  still  taught  in 
a desultory  way,  and  in  1899  the  Empress-Dowager  sent  special 
instructions  to  Moukden  and  Kirin  calling  upon  the  provincial 
authorities  to  raise  the  standard  of  education  in  the  Manchu 
schools  there  and  bring  them  into  line  with  the  schools  of 
Peking.  At  the  time  when  Nurhachu  was  carrying  on  his 
conquests  in  Manchuria  and  welding  the  various  chieftainships 
into  one  kingdom  there  was  no  Manchu  chirography,  and 
recourse  was  had  to  Mongol  as  the  intermediary  in  distant 
communications.  Then  it  was  that  the  necessity  of  possessing 
an  independent  written  language  was  realised,  and  Nurhachu 
gave  orders  for  its  construction.  This  was  accordingly  done, 
Mongol  being  taken  as  the  basis  of  the  new  writing.  The 


PEOPLE  AND  ADMINISTRATION  159 


Manchu  language  contains  twenty-five  letters  or  characters,  six 
vowels  and  nineteen  consonants,  and  the  writing  consists  in 
drawing  a straight  line  from  top  to  bottom  of  the  page  and  in 
adding  on  either  side  of  the  line  with  a Chinese  pen  the  strokes 
and  curves  necessary  to  form  the  letters  and  words.  It  embraces 
all  the  parts  of  speech,  and  is  essentially  a simple  language, 
possessing,  thanks  to  its  constructors,  only  one  gender.  While 
in  Chinese  writing  the  reader  begins  at  the  top  right  hand 
corner  of  the  page,  in  Manchu  he  starts  at  the  top  left  hand 
corner,  in  both  cases  reading  downwards. 

The  standard  of  education  in  Manchuria,  from  a Chinese 
point  of  view,  is  not  of  a very  high  order,  and  comparatively 
few  literary  honours  have  fallen  to  its  inhabitants ; but  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  Chinese  immigrants  from  Shantung 
and  Chihli  are  exceedingly  poor  and  illiterate,  and,  in  the 
country  districts,  sparsely  scattered  over  a very  large  area,  so 
that  educational  facilities  are  not  yet  so  well  organised  as  in 
China  Proper.  Another  reason  is  that,  while  the  degree  of 
licentiate  may  be  obtained  at  Moukden,  the  provincial  degree, 
which  can  be  gained  at  the  capital  of  each  province  in  China, 
can,  like  the  metropolitan  degree,  be  competed  for  by  the 
students  of  Manchuria  only  at  Peking. 

The  administration  of  Manchuria  was  originally  conducted 
on  a purely  military  basis  ; but  the  southern  province  of  to-day 
resembles  in  its  form  of  government  the  provincial  administra- 
tion of  China.  There  is  a difference,  however,  and  it  is  this. 
At  Peking  there  are  six  Boards  for  the  transaction,  each  in  its 
own  department,  of  all  public  business  referred  to  them.  They 
are : (1)  Board  of  Civil  Office,  (2)  Board  of  Revenue,  (3)  Board 
of  Ceremonies,  (4)  Board  of  War,  (5)  Board  of  Punishments, 
and  (6)  Board  of  Works.  With  the  exception  of  the  first,  the 
Board  of  Civil  Office,  these  boards  have  their  counterparts  at 
Moukden,  and  each  of  the  five  boards,  established  in  1631,  is 


160 


MANCHURIA 


presided  over  by  a vice-president,  who,  in  his  own  special  depart- 
ment, is  a colleague  of  the  head  of  the  province,  the  Governor- 
General. 

In  1644,  the  first  year  of  the  reign  of  Shun  Chih,  the  first 
emperor  of  the  present  dynasty,  the  government  of  Shen-yang 
was  entrusted  to  a Chamberlain  of  the  Imperial  Court  in  con- 
junction with  two  Deputy-Lieutenant-Generals  and  a Military 
Secretary  or  Adjutant;  in  1646  an  An-pang  (Amban)  took 
their  place ; in  1662  the  title  of  Amban  was  changed  to  that 
of  Military  Governor  (Chiang  Chun)  of  Liao-tung;  in  the 
following  year  to  Military  Governor  of  F§ng-t’ien ; in  1671  to 
Military  Governor  of  Sheng-king ; and  in  1876  the  Military 
Governor  was  created  Governor-General  of  Feng-t’ien.  As 
Military  Governor  he  was,  prior  to  1898,  Commander-in-Chief 
of  all  the  forces  within  his  province,  with  the  exception  of  the 
garrison  in  the  south  of  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula  at  Port  Arthur 
and  in  its  immediate  neighbourhood,  which  was,  for  imperial 
purposes,  under  the  control  of  the  Superintendent  of  Trade  for 
the  Northern  Ports,  who  is  at  the  same  time  Governor-General 
of  the  Metropolitan  Province  of  Chihli.  In  March,  1898,  this 
garrison  was,  in  accordance  with  Article  IV.  of  the  Port  Arthur 
Agreement,1  withdrawn  to  make  room  for  Russian  troops,  and 
it  is  now  stationed  between  the  Liao  River  and  Shan-hai-kuan. 
With  this  exception,  then,  the  Military  Governor  is  Commander- 
in-Chief  of  all  the  Banner  and  Chinese  forces  within  the  province 
of  F&ng-t’ien.  He  is  also  High  Commissioner  in  charge  of  the 
defences  of  the  whole  of  Manchuria,  and  in  this  capacity,  when 
the  defences  of  Kirin  or  Hei-lung-chiang  are  concerned,  he  has 
as  colleagues  the  Military  Governors  of  these  provinces. 

It  will  be  more  convenient,  however,  to  deal  first  with  the 
civil  administration.  In  1657  Shen-yang  was  made  a prefecture 


1 Vide  Chapter  II. 


PEOPLE  AND  ADMINISTRATION  161 


under  the  name  of  Feng-t’ien  Fu,  which  embraces  the  region 
enclosing  Moukden,  the  capital,  and  a Civil  Governor  was  ap- 
pointed. Four  years  later  the  Civil  Governor  was  further 
invested  with  the  duties  of  Literary  Chancellor;  but  in  1664 
the  office  of  Vice-Governor  was  created,  and  the  post  of  Pro- 
vincial Literary  Examiner  withdrawn  from  the  Civil  Governor 
and  conferred  on  the  Vice-Governor.  In  1876  the  Civil 
Governor  was  given  the  rank  of  a Provincial  Governor  in  China, 
and  as  such  he  is  a colleague  of  the  Governor-General.  The 
office  of  the  latter  at  Moukden,  where  these  three  officials 
reside,  consists  of  a number  of  departments — secretariat,  clerical, 
official  despatch  receiving  office,  department  of  the  five  Boards 
(each  of  which,  again,  including  its  vice-president,  has  a staff 
of  secretaries,  writers,  etc.,  ranging  from  twenty-three  in  the 
case  of  the  Board  of  War  to  fifty-three  in  the  Board  of  Punish- 
ments), military  gendarmerie,  police,  paymaster,  hunting  ground, 
pasturage,  stud  and  cart  and  goods  tax  offices.  It  would  only 
weary  the  reader  and  serve  no  useful  purpose  to  enter  into 
details  regarding  the  composition  and  duties  of  the  staff  of 
each  Board.  This  chapter  is  intended  to  give  merely  a general 
description  of  the  administration  of  Manchuria,  the  details  of 
which  would  themselves  fill  a volume  and  occupy  more  time 
than  I have  at  my  disposal.  I should  not  omit  to  mention 
here,  however,  that  within  the  last  few  years  offices  for  the 
consideration  of  international  questions  have  been  established 
at  Moukden  and  Kirin  (the  capital  of  the  Central  province). 
They  are  advisory  bodies,  each  consisting  of  several  official 
members,  whose  duty  it  is  to  consider  and  tender  to  the 
Governor-General  and  Military  Governor  respectively  advice 
regarding  such  international  cases  arising  in  the  two  provinces 
as  the  Heads  of  the  Government  consider  of  sufficient  importance 
to  be  referred  to  them  for  an  opinion. 

There  are  three  Taotais  or  Intendants  of  Circuit  in  the 

11 


162 


MANCHURIA 


province  of  Feng-t’ien.  They  are  the  Yi  Hsiin  Tao,  stationed 
at  Moukden,  who  to  a great  extent  fills  the  position  of  Judicial 
Commissioner  of  a Chinese  province ; the  F$ng-Chin-shan-hai 
Tao,  who  exercises  territorial  jurisdiction  over  the  prefectures 
of  Feng-t’ien  Fu  and  Chin-chou  Fu  and  the  city  of  Shan-hai- 
kuan  to  the  immediate  south  of  the  Great  Wall,  and  resides 
at  Ying-kow,  the  port  of  Newchwang,  where,  in  addition  to 
being  in  charge  of  the  native  Customs  within  his  Intendancy, 
he  is  Superintendent  of  the  Foreign  Customs ; and  the  Tung 
Pien  Tao,  or  Intendant  of  the  Eastern  Frontier,  who  resides 
at  the  city  of  Feng-huang  T’ing,  and  has  territorial  jurisdiction 
over  the  sub-prefectures  of  Feng-huang  and  Hsing-ching  (or 
Hsing-king),  the  department  of  Hsiu-yen,  and  the  four  dis- 
tricts of  T’ung-hua,  Jen-huai,  An-tung  and  Kuan-tien.  These 
three  Intendancies  were  established  in  1876,  1866  and  1877 
respectively.  A Taotai  or  Intendant  of  Circuit  is,  generally 
speaking,  an  official  exercising  administrative  duties  over  two 
or  more  prefectures,  with  control  over  the  military  forces 
within  his  jurisdiction.  The  Yi  Hsiin  Tao  has  no  military 
control;  the  other  two  Intendants  have. 

A prefecture  is  a provincial  sub-division  administered  by 
a Chih  Fu  or  Prefect,  who  exercises  control  over  the  second- 
class  sub-prefectures  and  districts  which  constitute  his  juris- 
diction. There  are  three  such  prefectures  in  the  province  of 
Feng-t’ien — F^ng-t’ien  Fu,  which  embraces  Moukden,  the 
capital,  established  in  1657,  Chin-chou  Fu  in  1665,  and  Ch’ang- 
t’u  Fu  (Yu-shih-ch’eng-tzu)  in  1877. 

Next  to  prefectures  come  sub-prefectures,  designated  T’ing. 
There  are  six  of  these  in  F£ng-t’ien — Hsin-min  T’ing  (1798), 1 
Hai-lung  T’ing,  Hsing-ching  T’ing  (1877),  Chin-chou  T’ing 
(1843)  formerly  called  Ning-hai  Hsien,  Feng-huang  T’ing 

1 The  figures  in  parentheses  represent  the  years  in  which  the  sub-prefectures, 
departments  and  districts  were  established. 


PEOPLE  AND  ADMINISTRATION  163 


(1876)  and  Ying-k’ou  T’ing  (1866).  The  official  in  charge  of 
the  last  is  a maritime  sub-prefect,  who  resides  at  the  port 
of  Newchwang,  where  he  acts  as  police  magistrate  without 
territorial  j urisdiction . 

Then  come  departments  ( Chou ),  of  which  there  are  five — 
Fu  Chou  (1734),  Hsiu-yen  Chou  (1876),  Ning-yiian  Chou 
(1664),  Yi  Chou  (1734)  and  Liao-yang  Chou,  which,  originally 
a prefecture,  was  reduced  to  a district  when  F£ng-t’ien  Fu 
was  established,  and  in  1664  raised  to  its  present  rank. 

There  are  fourteen  districts  (Hsien),  each  with  its  district 
city  and  magistrate.  They  are : Ch’eng-t&  Hsien  (1664), 
the  senior  district  because  it  contains  Moukden,  the  capital, 
Hai-ch’eng  Hsien  (1653),  Kai-p’ing  Hsien  (1664),  once  a 
department  or  chou , K’ai-yuan  Hsien  (1664),  T’ieh-ling  Hsien 
(1664),  K’ang-p’ing  Hsien  (1876),  Feng-hua  Hsien  (Maimai- 
kai)  (1877),  Huai-te  Hsien  (Ta-pa-chia-tzu)  (1887),  Kuang- 
ning  Hsien  (1665),  Chin  Hsien  (1665),  Tung-hua  Hsien  (1877), 
Huai-jen  Hsien  (1877),  An-tung  Hsien  (1877)  and  Kuan-tien 
Hsien  (1877). 

Mr.  Mayers,  in  his  book  on  the  Chinese  Government, 
admirably  expresses  in  a single  paragraph  the  duties  of  pre- 
fects and  magistrates.  “ They  constitute,”  he  says,  “ the 
general  administrative  body  of  the  provincial  civil  service. 
They  are  charged  with  the  collection  of  revenue,  the  main- 
tenance of  order,  and  the  primary  dispensation  of  justice, 
as  well  as  with  the  conduct  of  literary  examinations  and  of 
the  Government  postal  service,  and  in  general  with  the  exercise 
of  all  the  direct  functions  of  public  administration.” 

By  Government  postal  service  is  meant  the  transmission  of 
official  documents ; but  there  is,  in  addition  to  this,  a courier 
department,  with  a head  office  at  Moukden,  for  the  conveyance 
of  despatches  along  the  main  roads  of  the  province.  The  staff  at 
Moukden  consists  of  a superintendent,  assistant  superintendent 


164 


MANCHURIA 


and  two  second-class  secretaries,  with  twenty-nine  postmasters 
at  different  cities  and  places  in  Feng-t’ien.  In  the  interior  of 
China  and  Manchuria  ordinary  correspondence  has  always  been 
attended  to  by  private  native  post-offices  without  Government 
control ; but  the  Chinese  Government  have  recently  organised, 
through  the  Inspector-General  of  Customs,  an  Imperial  Post, 
which,  at  first  established  at  Peking  and  the  open  ports  only, 
is  now  extending  its  operations  further  afield.  Official  pressure 
has  been  brought  to  bear  on  the  native  post-offices  to  compel 
them  to  transmit  and  receive  through  the  Imperial  Post  all 
mail  matter  entrusted  to  them,  and  in  Manchuria,  with  the 
port  of  Newchwang  as  a head  office,  branch  offices  of  the 
Imperial  Chinese  Post  had  up  to  the  10th  of  February,  1900, 
been  opened  at  Chin-chou  Fu  and  Then-chuang-t’ai  on  the 
road  to  Tientsin ; at  Kai-p’ing  Hsien  (Kai  Chou),  Hsiung-yao 
and  Wa-fang-tien  in  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula;  and  at  Hai- 
ch’£ng  Hsien,  Niuchuang,  Liao-yang  Chou,  Moukden,  Theh- 
ling  Hsien  and  K'ai-yuan  Hsien  on  the  main  highroad  from 
the  port  to  the  north.  Other  branches  were  soon  to  be  opened 
at  T’ung-chiang-tzu,  Cli’ang-t’u  Fu,  K’uan-ch’eng-tzu  (Ch’ang- 
ch’un  Fu)  and  Kirin. 

The  district  magistrate  is  the  lowest  territorial  and  adminis- 
trative  official;  but  at  several  important  places  in  F£ng-then 
there  are  assistant  magistrates,  who  are  directly  responsible  to 
the  magistrate  of  the  district  within  which  they  are  stationed. 

The  above  officials  constitute  the  civil  administration  of 
Feng-then ; but  I should  not  omit  to  mention  in  a few  words 
what  may  be  termed  the  self-government  of  the  country.  Every 
village  of  any  size  contains  one  or  more,  and  every  town  or  city 
several,  Headmen  (Hsiang-yao),  elected  by  their  fellow- villagers 
and  townsmen,  and  approved  of  by  the  civil  local  authority  of 
the  district.  The  duties  of  a Headman  are  many  and  varied. 
He  is  called  upon  to  settle  disputes  among  his  constituents,  to 


PEOPLE  AND  ADMINISTRATION  165 


represent  them  in  case  of  litigation  in  local  courts,  and,  in 
general,  to  be  the  intermediary  between  them  and  the  civil 
power.  He  has  at  the  same  time  to  report  whatever  of  im- 
portance occurs  within  his  ward  or  constituency.  For  example, 
the  magistrate  numbers  among  his  multifarious  duties  the  office 
of  Coroner,  and  the  Headman  has  to  report  without  delay 
every  case  of  sudden  or  suspicious  death,  fatal  accident  or 
murder.  In  land  transactions  he  is  constantly  in  demand.  His 
seal  on  a deed  is  a guarantee  that  the  document  is  in  order, 
that  the  lessor  or  seller  is  entitled  to  lease  or  sell  the  land  to 
which  the  deed  refers,  and  that  the  District  Magistrate,  who  is 
also  Land  Registrar,  may  register  the  land  and  seal  the  deed 
without  fear  of  future  complications.  I am  here,  more  especially, 
referring  to  a lease  or  sale  by  Chinese  to  foreigners,  when  more 
than  usual  care  is  taken  as  to  the  validity  of  the  document. 

The  gentry  and  merchant  guilds  also  play  a prominent  part 
in  local  government,  their  power  and  influence  being  much 
greater  than  is  generally  supposed.  When  Chinese  from  one 
province  of  China  settle  in  another  one  of  their  first  acts  is  to 
establish  a guild  or  guilds  in  the  centres  where  they  reside. 
These,  primarily  formed  for  the  protection  of  their  members, 
gradually  assume  to  themselves  municipal  functions,  and  for 
many  reasons,  chiefly  financial,  they  are  looked  upon  with  favour 
by  the  local  authorities.  They  can  always  be  relied  upon  for 
contributions,  and  are  useful  bodies  to  conjure  with  when  any 
scheme  of  betterment  is  propounded  from  without.  The  oppo- 
sition of  the  gentry  and  guilds  can  always  be  cited  as  a 
powerful  lever  to  block  reforms  and  palliate  inaction. 

The  port  of  Newchwang  was  opened  to  foreign  trade  by  the 
Treaty  of  Tientsin  of  1858,  ratified  at  Peking  on  the  24th  of 
October,  1860  ; but,  prior  to  that  date,  Chinese  traders  from 
other  provinces  had  settled  in  Feng-t’ien,  and  guilds  were 
already  established  by  natives  of  Chihli,  the  San  Chiang,  Shan- 


166 


MANCHURIA 


tung  and  Shansi  at  Moukden,  of  San  Chiang,  Shantung,  Shansi 
and  Fuhkien  at  Kai-p’ing  Hsien,  of  Shantung  at  Chin-chou 
T’ing,  of  Fuhkien  at  Kai-p’ing  Hsien,  and  of  Anhui  at  Chin- 
chou  Fu.  In  the  early  days  Moukden,  Kai-p’ing  Hsien  and 
Chin-chou  T’ing  were  the  chief  commercial  centres ; but,  on  the 
opening  of  Newchwang  in  1861,  trade  left  the  old  channels  and 
gravitated  to  the  new  port.  The  result  was  that  clubs  (Kung 
So),  representing  the  San  Chiang,  Canton  and  Fuhkien  provinces, 
were  inaugurated  at  Newchwang.  These  are  supported  by  a 
voluntary  tax  on  all  goods  imported  and  exported  by  the 
members.  To  each  club  is  attached  a mortuary,  where  the 
remains  of  members  and  fellow  provincials  are  deposited  pend- 
ing their  removal  to  their  native  places.  When  the  bubonic 
plague,  referred  to  in  another  chapter,  broke  out  in  Newchwang 
in  the  summer  of  1899  the  victims  were  coffined  and  deposited 
in  these  mortuaries,  and  one  of  the  great  difficulties  with  which 
the  International  Sanitary  Board  had  to  contend  was  the 
removal  of  these  centres  of  infection.  Every  possible  pressure 
had  to  be  brought  to  bear  on  the  authorities  before  they  could 
be  induced  to  meddle  with  these  clubs.  Newchwang  likewise 
possesses  a guild  of  native  merchants,  which,  besides  performing 
the  functions  of  a Chamber  of  Commerce,  exercises  the  muni- 
cipal duties  of  maintaining  the  streets,  drains  and  bridges, 
providing  food  and  extra  clothing  to  the  necessitous  poor 
during  the  long,  severe  winter,  keeping  in  order  the  ponds  for 
supplying  the  town  with  water,  guarding  commonalties  and 
supplying  theatrical  performances  and  other  entertainment  to 
its  members  and  the  general  public.  It  has  the  authority  to 
tax  carts,  shops  and,  to  a certain  extent,  trade  to  enable  it 
to  fulfil  these  duties ; but,  although  the  taxes  are  rigidly  levied, 
it  cannot  be  said  that  the  duties  are  faithfully  carried  out. 

At  Moukden  there  is  another  office,  which,  although  dealing 
more  especially  with  the  provinces  of  Kirin  and  Hei-lung-chiang, 


PEOPLE  AND  ADMINISTRATION  167 


must  not  be  omitted.  It  is  called  the  Wu-la  Tsung-kuan 
Yam£n,  and  exercises  supervision  over  the  hunters  (Ta  Sh&ng) 
and  pearl-fishers  (Ts’ai  Chu)  in  Wu-la,  the  name  of  the  country 
now  included  in  the  two  northern  provinces.  Through  this 
office  tribute  of  furs,  animals,  etc.,  has  to  be  sent  annually  to 
Peking,  and  presents  of  grain  and  clothing  are  made  by  it 
to  the  hunters  and  pearl-fishers. 

The  military  administration  of  F§ng-Fien  is  earned  on  by 
the  Military  Governor  (Chiang  Chun)  of  the  province,  assisted 
bv  four  Military  Deputy-Lieutenant- Governors,  stationed  at 
Moukden,  Chin-chou  T’ing,  Hsing-ching  (Hsing-king)  and  Chin- 
chou  Fu  ; but,  owing  to  the  lease  of  the  Kuan-tung  1 Peninsula 
to  Russia,  the  forces  at  Chin-chou  T’ing  have  been  withdrawn 
and  stationed  elsewhere.  The  army  of  Manchuria  is  composed 
of  44  foreign  drilled  ” Chinese  troops  and  a Banner  force,  said 
to  number  25,000  and  40,000  respectively.  It  is  usual  to 
considerably  discount  Chinese  figures  ; but  within  the  last  two 
or  three  years  active  recruiting  has  been  carried  on,  and  I am 
inclined  to  think  that  these  figures  should  be  added  to  and  not 
discounted.  Indeed,  the  quantity  of  Mauser  rifles  recently  im- 
ported into  Manchuria  through  the  port  of  Newchwang  alone, 
for  use  in  the  F£ng-t’ien  province,  would  suffice  to  equip  an 
army  of  about  40,000  men,  and  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  foreign  drilled  troops  of  the  province,  amounting  to  8,000 
men,  are  already  provided  with  serviceable  weapons.  There  is, 
besides,  an  arsenal  at  Moukden,  where  rifles  of  all  sorts  are 
manufactured,  and  quite  recently  the  conversion  of  muzzle  into 
breach-loading  guns  has  been  a specialty  of  the  establishment. 
If  one  were  to  judge  by  battalions,  the  cavalry  would  appear 
to  equal  the  infantry  ; but  an  infantry  battalion  numbers  500 
men,  while  a squadron  of  cavalry  numbers  only  some  200.  A 

1 The  name  Kuan-tung  is  properly  applicable  to  the  southern  part  of  the 
Liao-tung  Peninsula. 


168 


MANCHURIA 


force  of  some  thirteen  battalions  is  stationed  at  Moukden,  and 
the  balance  is  distributed  throughout  the  various  cities  of  the 
province,  where,  in  addition  to  their  military  duties,  they  act 
as  bodyguards  to  the  civil  officials  from  the  magistrate  upwards, 
and  as  military  police  assist  them  in  maintaining  order. 

The  head  of  the  province  of  Kirin  is  a Chiang-chiin,  or 
Military  Governor,  and  the  administration  is  practically  on  a 
military  basis ; but  where  Chinese  have  settled  in  numbers  it 
has  been  found  necessary  to  appoint  civil  officials.  There  is  a 
Taotai  at  Kirin,  and  Prefects  are  stationed  at  Kirin  and  Ch’ang- 
ch’un  Fu  (K’uan-ch’eng-tzu),  which  is  eighty  miles  to  the  west 
of  the  capital.  There  are  independent  Sub-Prefects  at  Pai-tu- 
na  (or  Pe-tu-na),  Shuang-ch’eng,  Pinchou  and  Wu-ch’ang,  a 
Department  Magistrate  at  Yi-t’ung,  and  District  Magistrates 
at  Nung-an  (Lung- wan)  and  Tun-hua  (Ao-tun-ch’eng). 

In  addition  to  the  Banner  force,  there  is  a foreign  drilled 
force,  said  to  number  10,000  men,  under  the  command  of  six 
Military  Deputy-Lieutenant-Governors,  who  have  charge  of  cer- 
tain divisions  of  the  province.  They  are  stationed  at  Kirin, 
Ninguta,  San-sing  (San-hsing),  Pe-tu-na,  A-shih-ho  (Altcfrukha) 
and  Hun-ch’un.  The  last  is  a special  appointment,  and  the 
officer  in  command  is  charged  with  the  defence  of  the  frontier 
of  Kirin  bordering  on  the  Russian  Primorsk.  There  are  forts 
at  Kirin,  Hun-ch’un  and  San-sing,  as  well  as  an  arsenal  and 
powder  mills  at  Kirin ; but  the  value  of  the  frontier  defences 
may  be  gathered  from  the  following  description  by  a British 
military  officer  of  the  fort  at  San-sing,  which  he  visited  in 
1897 : “ It  is  a ruin,  but  was  originally  a mud  lunette,  with 
just  enough  cement  in  it  to  hold  it  together  for  one  or  two 
inspections.  The  timber  with  which  the  magazines  are  lined  is 
decayed  and  broken,  the  shot,  shell,  racers,  pivots,  etc.,  are 
rusty,  and  heaped  up  in  the  open  like  a pile  of  old  iron.  The 
only  evidence  that  any  attempt  was  ever  made  to  mount  a gun 


PEOPLE  AND  ADMINISTRATION  169 


is  a broken  pivot  and  a burst  hydraulic  cylinder.  The  carriages 
are  in  a very  bad  condition,  but  the  guns  themselves,  though  lying 
in  the  open,  are  serviceable.” 1 It  is  hardly  surprising  that  this 
fort  fell  with  ease  into  the  hands  of  the  Russians  during 
their  present  invasion  of  Manchuria.  I should  have  mentioned 
that  the  fort  between  the  port  of  Newchwang  and  the  mouth  of 
the  Liao  River  in  the  Feng-t’ien  province  was  dismantled  by 
the  Japanese  in  1895  and  the  guns  carried  off  or  destroyed. 
It  was  not  again  equipped. 

Although  Feng-t’ien  has  recently  been  very  much  disturbed 
by  bandits,  mounted  and  on  foot,  in  the  south-west  of  the 
province,  Kirin  is,  par  excellence , the  province  of  outlaws  and 
ex-soldiers,  who,  well  mounted  and  armed,  collect  into  bands, 
and,  issuing  from  their  mountain  fastnesses,  especially  in  the 
east  and  north-east  of  the  province,  swoop  down  on  villages, 
caravans  of  goods  and  travellers  and  plunder  and  rob  without 
mercy.  Even  the  great  trade  highways  of  the  provinces  are 
infested  with  them,  and  an  experience  which  befell  the  writer  in 
1896  has  already  been  described  in  Chapter  I.  Officials  are 
sometimes  carried  off  and  held  to  ransom.  There  can  be  little 
doubt  that  these  brigands  have  agents  in  the  principal  towns 
who  keep  them  informed  regarding  the  movement  of  treasure 
and  valuables,  and  I understand  that  the  Russians  have  recently 
had  considerable  trouble  in  forwarding  silver  to  pay  the  work- 
men engaged  on  the  Trans-Manchurian  Railway  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Ninguta,  which  is  a favourite  haunt  of  these 
outlaws.  Indeed,  brigandage  in  Manchuria  has  given  rise  to 
the  establishment  of  private  insurance  offices  throughout  the 
country.  These  undertake  for  a commission  the  safe  conduct  of 
goods  and  treasure  from  one  place  to  another.  Each  office 
supplies  the  trader  with  its  own  distinctive  triangular  scalloped 


Parliamentary  Paper , China , No.  i (1889),  p.  55. 


170 


MANCHURIA 


flag,  which  is  planted  on  each  cart  in  the  caravan,  and  a few 
armed  men  are  sent  as  a nominal  guard.  It  is  generally  under- 
stood that  the  insurance  offices  have  to  pay  blackmail  to  the 
brigands  to  insure  respect  for  their  flags,  as  the  insurance 
guards  are  too  weak  to  resist  any  determined  attack.  That 
they  are  sometimes  attacked,  however,  is  proved  by  the  visits 
which  they  pay  now  and  again  to  missionary  hospitals  for  the 
purpose  of  having  bullets  extracted.  The  military  forces  of 
Kirin  are  kept  busy  hunting  down  these  brigands,  who,  knowing 
that  their  capture  means  sudden  death,  fight  with  the  greatest 
determination,  and  frequently  inflict  heavy  losses  on  their  would- 
be  captors.  Brigandage  has  practically  become  a profession  in 
the  Central  province,  and  even  in  the  Southern  province,  where 
it  is  less  rampant,  parents  have  been  overheard  discussing  the 
advisability  of  fitting  out  their  sons  as  highwaymen  when  every- 
thing else  failed,  and  even  a ragged  mendicant  bewailing  his  luck 
has  been  know  to  express  the  opinion  that  it  would  be  far  more 
profitable  for  him  to  be  a brigand  than  a beggar,  and  that  he 
only  lacked  the  funds  to  procure  an  outfit.  There  are  times 
when  the  Chinese  authorities  find  it  convenient  to  enter  into  a 
compact  with  these  outlaws.  An  instance  occurred  during  the 
war  with  Japan,  when  a brigand  chief  and  his  followers  were 
induced  to  attempt  the  expulsion  of  the  invaders  of  Manchuria. 
They  were  not  a success. 

Hei-lung-chiang  is  also  presided  over  by  a Military  Governor, 
and  the  civil  administration  is  at  a discount.  There  are  only 
two  civil  officials  with  territorial  jurisdiction  in  the  whole  of  the 
province.  They  are  the  independent  Sub-Prefects  of  Hu -lan 
and  Sui-hua  (Pei-Cuan-lin-tzu),  two  places  situated  in  the 
Chinese-cultivated  area  to  the  immediate  north  of  the  Sungari. 

There  are  six  Military  Deputy-Lieutenant- Governors  sta- 
tioned at  Aigun,  Mergen,  Tsitsihar,  Hu-lan,  Hu-lun-pei-’rh 
(Khailar)  and  Pu-t’e-ha,  commanding,  in  addition  to  the  Banner 


PEOPLE  AND  ADMINISTRATION  171 


force  of  the  province,  a foreign  drilled  force  of  7,000  Chinese. 
Besides  their  ordinary  military  duties  they  are  engaged  in  the 
suppression  of  brigandage,  which  is  rampant  in  the  south  of  the 
province,  and  in  the  protection  of  the  gold  mines  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Amur.  There  is  a fort  at  Aigun  on  the  Amur  for 
the  protection  of  the  frontier. 

The  financial  condition  of  Manchuria  is  a very  intricate 
subject,  and  it  is  altogether  impossible  to  arrive  at  figures 
which  can  be  looked  upon  as  reliable.  The  revenue  is  derived 
from  the  land  tax,  from  which  Manchus  are  exempt,  contribu- 
tions from  salt,  which  is  a Government  monopoly,  likin  and 
native  customs  duties  on  goods  of  all  kinds,  including  native 
opium  and  lumber,  levies  on  carts,  licenses  to  opium  dealers, 
distilleries  and  native  boats  plying  on  the  inland  waters,  taxes 
on  sales  of  cattle,  houses  and  land,  percentages  on  the  output  of 
gold,  and  last,  but  not  least,  part  of  the  revenue  of  the  Imperial 
Maritime  Customs  at  the  port  of  Newchwang,  which  in  1899 
amounted  to  Haikwan  taels  928,740,  or  ^139, 795. 1 Annual 
subsidies  are  also  contributed  by  several  of  the  provinces  of 
China  in  aid  of  frontier  defence,  and  it  is  the  constant  wail  of 
the  High  Authorities  of  Manchuria  that  these  contributions 
are  in  arrear.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  there  is  a heavy 
expenditure  for  military  purposes  ; but  a searching  investigation 
into  the  finances  of  the  three  provinces  would  probably  reveal 
serious  losses  to  the  provincial  exchequers,  and  an  absolute  waste 
of  much  that  is  actually  contributed  to  them. 

1 The  average  sterling  value  of  the  Haikwan  tael  was  2S.  iofd.  in  1898  and 
3s.  ojd.  in  1899. 


CHAPTER  VII 


AGRICULTURE  AND  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS 

PRIOR  to  the  establishment  of  the  present  dynasty  in  China 
the  inhabitants  of  Manchuria  were,  as  stated  in  the  last 
chapter,  warriors,  fishermen  and  hunters,  who  devoted  but 
little  attention  to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  They  were  con- 
tent to  produce  enough  to  supply  their  own  immediate  wants, 
and  to  graze  their  flocks  and  herds  on  the  succulent  grasses  of 
the  steppes.  More  especially  was  this  the  case  in  the  two 
northern  provinces,  for  during  the  Ming  dynasty  (1368-1643) 
the  greater  part  of  the  southern  province  of  Feng-t’ien  was 
already  under  Chinese  j urisdiction,  and,  under  the  name  of  Liao- 
chou-wei,  constituted  a Chinese  possession,  which  was  marked  off 
from  the  Tartar  tribes  to  the  north  and  east  by  a palisade, 
whose  position  to  the  north  of  K’ai-yiian  and  east  of  Hsing- 
king  and  Feng-huang-ch’eng  may  still  be  found  traced  on 
modern  maps,  although  it  has  now  all  but  disappeared.  In  the 
seventeenth  century,  therefore,  Southern  Manchuria  was  on  the 
same  footing,  in  regard  to  cultivation,  as  China  Proper,  and 
since  the  accession  of  the  Manchu  dynasty  Chinese  colonists  have 
pushed  northwards  and  settled  on  the  fine  rich  loam,  so  admir- 
ably suited  to  purposes  of  tillage,  where  they  have  been  amply 
rewarded  for  their  enterprise  and  labour.  Emigration  to  the 
far  north  has  been  systematically  discouraged  by  the  Govern- 
ment, for  fear,  it  is  supposed,  of  trouble  with  the  Colossus  of  the 
North,  and  much  of  the  east  of  Kirin  and  Feng-t’ien  was  reserved 

as  an  Imperial  hunting  ground  ; but  of  late  these  restrictions 

(172) 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS  173 


and  reservations  have  been  relaxed,  with  the  result  that  even 
Hei-lung-chiang  is  gradually  being  reclaimed,  while  the  Imperial 
hunting  ground  is,  by  permission  of  the  Throne,  fast  becoming 
a busy  centre  of  agricultural  life. 

Probably  not  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  whole  arable  land 
of  Manchuria  is  at  present  under  cultivation.  Only  small 
patches,  comparatively  speaking,  of  Hei-lung-chiang,  which 
exceeds  in  area  the  other  two  provinces  combined,  are  annually 
under  crop ; at  least  one-half  of  Kirin  yet  remains  untilled ; 
and  Feng-t’ien  has  three  or  four-tenths  still  awaiting  develop- 
ment. The  present  colonists  are  of  themselves  unable  to  cope 
with  the  land  they  have  taken  up,  and  labour  is  yearly  imported 
from  the  northern  provinces  of  China,  especially  Shan-tung  and 
Chihli,  to  till,  sow  and  reap.  From  Chefoo  alone  more  than 
twenty  thousand  Chinese  labourers  come  to  Newchwang  every 
spring  by  steamer  and  distribute  themselves  all  over  Manchuria 
and  Eastern  Mongolia ; and  that  number  represents  but  a part  of 
the  annual  influx,  for  many  cross  over  in  junks  from  Chefoo  to 
ports  in  the  south  of  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula,  which  are  not 
closed  by  ice  in  winter,  and  make  their  way  overland  to  the 
scenes  of  their  labour  before  the  Liao  River  is  open  to  naviga- 
tion in  the  spring.  These  labourers  return  by  steamer  to  Chefoo 
after  the  crops  have  been  harvested,  and  as  the  return  passengers 
by  steamer  exceed  the  arrivals  by  about  eight  thousand,  it  may 
be  roughly  calculated  that  Shan-tung  annually  supplies  Man- 
churia with  agricultural  labour  to  the  extent  of  thirty  thousand 
men.  That  province  also  sends  every  year  petty  traders  and 
others  to  the  number  of  some  five  thousand  men,  who  come  to 
Newchwang  by  steamer  just  before  the  closing  of  the  river  and 
stay  over  winter  in  Manchuria.  The  province  of  Chihli  likewise 
sends  a large  number  of  agricultural  labourers ; but  as  they 
enter  and  leave  Manchuria  by  land  there  is  no  means  at  hand 
of  gauging  its  extent.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  above,  there- 


174 


MANCHURIA 


fore,  that  Manchuria  is  greatly  deficient  in  labour,  and  that  the 
cultivation  now  carried  on  is  largely  dependent  on  help  from 
Northern  China. 

The  climatic  conditions  of  Manchuria  are  such  as  to  confine 
agricultural  operations  to  seven  months  of  the  year.  With  the 
exception  of  the  very  south  of  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula,  where 
a little  winter  wheat  is  grown,  the  farmer  does  not  touch  his 
land  till  the  frost  begins  to  relax  its  grasp  of  the  soil  towards 
the  middle  of  March,  and  he  must  take  care  that  crops  of  all 
kinds  are  harvested  before  the  end  of  October  or  early  in 
November,  for  in  the  latter  month  the  icy  hand  of  winter  again 
tightens  its  hold  of  the  ground.  As  a matter  of  fact,  the 
surface  is  still  slightly  frozen  in  March,  when  the  land  is  broken 
up  and  drilled  by  plough  for  the  reception  of  wheat  and  barley, 
which  are  ripe  and  harvested  in  June,  thereby  admitting  of 
another  but  different  crop  being  taken  from  the  same  soil.  But 
the  most  important  cereal  grown  in  Manchuria  is  the  tall  millet 
(Kao-liang),  or  Holcus  sorghum , L.  It  is  the  staple  food  of  the 
population  and  the  principal  grain  feed  of  the  numerous  animals 
engaged  in  the  farmwork  and  in  the  immense  carrying  trade 
of  the  three  provinces.  When  a field  has  been  ploughed  into 
drills  in  April,  and  their  tops  cut  open  by  an  iron  coulter 
attached  to  the  forepart  of  the  plough,  the  seed  is  sown  by 
hand  in  the  hollows  thus  made,  and  covered  with  manure  from 
baskets  carried  by  a labourer  following  in  the  wake  of  the  sower, 
and  a stone  roller  is  then  passed  over  the  drills.  When  the 
shoots  are  two  or  three  inches  high  they  are  thinned  by  hoe — 
a space  about  a foot  and  a half  being  left  between  the  plants — 
and  the  drills  are  carefully  weeded  and  earthed  up  three  times, 
after  which  no  further  labour  is  necessary  until  harvest  time 
in  September.  In  May,  when  the  stems  are  two  to  three  feet  high, 
heavy  rains  are  much  dreaded,  for  if  water  stands  for  any  length 
of  time  between  the  drills  the  roots  lose  their  hold  of  the  soil 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS  175 


and  rot,  and  the  stems,  especially  if  the  rain  is  accompanied 
by  wind,  fall  over  and  die.  Towards  harvest  time,  again,  too 
much  rain  or  too  long  drought  is  feared,  for,  in  either  case, 
the  lower  part  of  the  grain  head  fails  to  ripen  and  only  a 
partial  crop  is  garnered.  In  September  the  stems  have  attained 
a height  of  from  eight  to  ten  feet,  and  the  heads  have  assumed 
that  brown  purple  tint  which  is  derived  from  the  small  dark 
purple  cases  containing  the  grains.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
month  the  stems  are  cut  down  near  the  root,  made  into  bundles 
and  carted  to  the  farmhouse,  where  a threshing  floor  has  been 
prepared  m the  open.  The  heads  are  cut  off*,  spread  on  the 
floor  and  threshed  by  means  of  a stone  roller  to  which  an  ox, 
donkey  or  mule  is  harnessed.  The  separation  of  the  grains 
from  their  purple  cases  is  completed  in  about  four  hours.  The 
empty  heads  are  then  removed,  either  to  be  burned  as  firewood 
or  to  be  made  into  brooms,  and  the  grain  is  swept  up  and 

passed  through  a winnowing  machine  or  tossed  up  in  the  air, 

where  the  wind  catches  and  removes  the  dust.  The  grain  is 

now  ready  to  be  packed  in  sacks  for  market,  but  it  has  still 

to  be  husked  before  it  can  be  used  for  human  food.  It  is  given 
to  animals  in  its  unhusked  state.  To  remove  the  husks  the 
grain  is  spread  on  a circular  stone  platform,  whereon  a stone 
roller  fitted  thereto  crushes  the  husks  as  it  revolves.  The 
whole  is  then  passed  through  a winnowing  machine,  which 
separates  the  grain  from  the  husks.  To  cook  the  grains  for  food, 
they  are  first  washed  in  cold  water  and  then  poured  into  a pot  of 
boiling  water,  in  the  proportion  of  four  parts  water  to  one  part 
of  millet,  and  boiled  for  an  hour.  At  the  end  of  that  time  it 
will  be  found  that  the  grains  are  pulpy  and  swollen  to  three 
or  four  times  their  original  size.  The  soft  mass  is  then  scooped 
into  bowls  and  eaten  with  boiled,  fresh  or  pickled  vegetables, 
with  the  aid  of  chopsticks,  just  like  rice.  No  salt  or  other 
seasoning  is  added  to  the  millet  while  being  boiled,  and  the 


176 


MANCHURIA 


taste  is  very  insipid.  An  ordinary  servant  consumes  2 lb.  of 
millet  per  day,  while  a hard-working  man  will,  it  is  alleged, 
consume  double  that  quantity.  It  is  found  that  a change  of 
diet  is  occasionally  required,  and  native  flour,  which  is  coarser 
and  goes  a much  longer  way  than  foreign  flour,  is  from  time  to 
time  taken  as  a substitute  for  millet.  A Chinese  friend  of  mine 
has  five  servants,  and  he  supplies  them  monthly  with  240  lb.  of 
millet,  16  lb.  of  native  flour — sufficient  for  two  days — and  on 
two  days  of  the  month  with  meat.  The  dates  on  which  flour 
and  meat  are  given  are  fixed,  and  the  intervals  between  them 
are  as  near  as  possible  equal.  But  the  grains  are  not  the  only 
useful  part  of  the  tall  millet ; the  stalks  play  a very  important 
role  in  Manchuria.  The  outer  leaf  layers  are  woven  into  mats, 
which  are  so  much  required  in  the  trade  of  the  country  for 
enclosing  ricks  and  packing  loads  of  grain  and  beans,  and  for 
numerous  other  purposes.  The  stalks  are  also  utilised  for 
fencing,  bridging  and  house-building ; and  where  wood  and  coal 
are  unobtainable  or  dear  they  are  used  for  fuel.  In  spring,  too, 
the  roots  are  ploughed  up  and  collected  for  fuel.  It  is  estimated 
that  from  4,000  to  5,000  carts  laden  with  bundles  of  millet  stalks 
come  into  the  port  of  Newchwang  every  winter  from  a radius  of 
ten  to  twelve  miles  to  supply  a population  of  about  70,000. 
Eight  pounds  of  seed  suffice  to  sow  an  acre  of  land,  which  will 
produce  in  good  years  10  to  12  cwt.  of  grain.  In  bad  years, 
or  on  poor  soil,  only  a third  of  this  quantity  will  be  harvested. 
Two  other  kinds  of  millet  are  grown  in  Manchuria — Setaria 
italica , Kth.  (Hsiao-mi),  and  Panicum  miliaceum,  L.  (Huang-mi). 
They  occupy  the  ground  from  the  beginning  of  April — a fortnight 
earlier  than  the  tall  millet — to  the  middle  of  September.  Like 
all  other  cereals,  they  are  cultivated  in  drills,  but  the  seed  is 
sown  much  more  thickly  than  in  the  case  of  kao-liang.  The 
former,  or  spiked  millet,  requires  41  to  42  lb.  of  seed  per  acre 
(6 '6  mou),  which  in  good  years  will  yield  18  to  19  cwt. ; the 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS  177 


latter,  with  40  lb.  of  seed,  yields  only  10  to  11  cwt.,  and  is 
dearer  than  the  former,  costing  5 tiaos  (roughly  speaking,  10 
tiaos  = 1 Chinese  ounce  of  silver)  per  bushel  of  50  lb.,  against 
4 tiaos  per  bushel  of  about  52  lb.  The  tall  millet,  on  the  other 
hand,  costs  between  3 and  4 tiaos  per  bushel  of  some  40  lb. 
These  two  millets  are  harvested,  threshed  and  husked  like 
kao-liang , but  the  grain  heads  are  not  removed  from  the  straw. 
In  cooking  the  grains  of  spiked  millet  for  food,  water  is  added 
in  the  proportion  of  three  to  one,  for  their  absorptive  power  is 
not  so  great  as  that  of  tall  millet,  nor  do  they  require  so  much 
boiling;  a quarter  of  an  hour  is  sufficient.  While  half  a Chinese 
pint  ( sheng\  equal  to  2 lb.,  of  the  latter  suffices  for  one  individual 
having  two  meals  a day,  the  same  measure  of  the  former,  but 
equal  to  2J  lb.,  will  cook  three  meals.  Spiked  millet,  however, 
does  not  take  the  place  of  the  staple  food  : it  is  used  as  a change 
of  diet  only.  And  so  with  Panicum  miliaceum : the  grains  are 
ground  into  flour  and  made  into  cakes,  in  which  Chinese  dates 
or  jujubes  ( Zizyphus  vulgaris , Lamb.)  are  studded,  or  into  a kind 
of  confectionery  with  brown  sugar.  The  most  casual  observer 
will  not  fail  to  notice  little  pyramid-shaped  leaf  packets 
spread  out  on  the  numerous  street  stalls  during  the  summer 
months.  These  are  the  leaves  of  a reed  ( Phragmites  communis , 
Trin.)  extensively  grown  on  salt,  marshy  ground,  and  they  are 
used  to  wrap  up  this  sweetmeat.  Two  varieties  of  the  spiked 
millet  are  grown  in  Manchuria,  with  yellow  and  white  grains 
respectively.  I noticed  the  latter  at  a hamlet  called  La-yao-tzu 
while  travelling  in  the  province  of  Kirin,  and  was  told  that  it  is 
grown  principally  in  the  north ; but  the  yellow  variety  is  more 
commonly  cultivated.  The  chopped-up  straw  of  these  two 
millets  is  universally  used  for  fodder  in  Manchuria ; and  the 
proportion  which  their  combined  cultivation  bears  to  tall 
millet  (Kao-liang)  is  estimated  at  30  per  cent.  I should  have 

mentioned  that  on  large  farms  spiked  millet  is  sown  through 

12 


178 


MANCHURIA 


a metal  seed  tube  held  in  the  hand  or  attached  to  the  end  of 
the  plough. 

Manchuria  is  an  ideal  wheat  field,  and  both  barley  and 
wheat  are  grown  in  considerable  quantities.  They  are  sown  in 
drills  in  March  and  harvested  in  June,  wheat  ripening  ten  days 
earlier  than  barley.  Wheat  especially  is  cultivated  on  both 
banks  of  the  Sungari,  within  the  Hei-lung-chiang  and  Kirin 
provinces,  and  is  exported  in  junks  to  the  Russian  province  of 
the  Primorsk.  Manchuria  supplies  itself  with  native  flour,  and 
the  manufacture  yields  bran  for  beasts  of  burden.  Barley  is 
husked,  ground  and  made  into  cakes  for  the  most  part.  It  is 
also  used  in  large  quantities  ground  up  with  peas  or  beans  as 
a ferment  in  the  distillation  of  native  spirit  (Shao  chiu)  from 
tall  millet  ( Kao-1  iang).  Some  20  lb.  of  barley  are  required  to 
sow  an  acre,  which  will  yield  from  14  to  25  cwt.,  according  to 
the  quality  and  condition  of  the  soil.  An  acre  of  wheat,  on 
the  other  hand,  requires  17  to  22  lb.  of  seed,  and  yields  10  to 
14  cwt.  of  grain.  Wheat  costs  about  three  times  as  much  as 
barley,  and  can  be  bought  in  good  seasons  from  the  farmer  at 
about  3 tiaos  (50  Mexican  dollar  cents)  per  bushel  of  41  to  42 
lb.  The  best  native  flour  manufactured  from  wheat  grown  in 
Manchuria  costs  at  the  port  of  Newchwang  25  copper  cash  a 
pound,  that  is  to  say,  40  lb.  can  be  purchased  for  a Mexican 
dollar  of  the  value  of  about  2s. 

It  is  difficult  to  disassociate  the  cultivation  of  rice  from  a 
constant  and  abundant  water  supply ; but  in  Manchuria  rice 
is  growm  on  dry  land  like  other  cereals,  and,  unlike  them,  the 
crop  is  not  ruined  by  a superabundance  of  rain.  It  is  sown  in 
drills  in  the  end  of  March  or  beginning  of  April,  and  is  ripe 
in  September.  The  yield  ranges  from  50  to  1 40  fold,  according 
to  the  quality  of  the  soil.  Unhusked,  it  costs  6 tiaos  (about 
one  Mexican  dollar)  per  Chinese  bushel,  weighing  50  to  51  lb. 
Water-grown  rice  from  the  south  of  China  costs  about  the  same 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS  179 


price  laid  down  at  the  port  of  Newchwang ; but  dry-grown  rice 
is  much  softer  than,  and  its  absorptive  capacity  is  about  one 
half  of,  water-grown  rice.  As,  however,  it  is  twice  the  price 
of  tall  millet — the  staple  food  of  the  people — it  is  not  exten- 
sively grown  in  Manchuria.  The  cultivation  of  this  dry-grown 
rice  deserves  the  attention  of  countries  like  India,  where  a failure 
or  deficiency  of  the  rainfall  means  famine  or  dearth. 

Maize,  or  Indian  corn  (Zea  mats , L.),  is  grown  in  Manchuria 
in  the  same  way  as  tall  millet.  Seventeen  pounds  of  seed  are 
required  to  sow  an  acre,  which  will  yield  8 to  10  cwt.  of  grain. 
In  some  parts  of  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula  it  enters  largely  into 
the  food  of  the  people,  taking,  in  fact,  the  place  of  millet.  The 
grains  are  separated  from  the  cob  by  stone  rollers,  and  coarse 
ground  by  millstone — the  yellow  epidermis  being  removed — till 
each  grain  is  divided  up  into  three  or  four  pieces.  In  this  form 
it  is  boiled  for  about  a quarter  of  an  hour  and  eaten  like  rice. 
It  is  also  ground  into  flour  and  made  into  cakes.  The  market 
price  of  a Chinese  bushel  (about  40  to  41  lb.)  of  grains  is  about 
50  Mexican  dollar  cents,  or  twelve  pence.  The  roots,  stalks 
and  empty  cobs  are  used  for  fuel,  and  one  not  unfrequently 
notices  empty  cobs  utilised  as  corks  or  stoppers  for  narrow- 
necked wine  jars.  Maize  occupies  the  ground  from  April  to 
June  only,  and,  like  barley  and  wheat,  admits  of  an  autumn 
crop  being  taken  from  the  same  soil. 

Buckwheat  ( Polygonum  fagopyrum , L.)  is  an  autumn  crop 
which  requires  only  two  and  a half  months  to  ripen,  being  sown 
in  July  and  harvested  in  September.  The  seed  is  sown  in  drills, 
and  the  plants  are  picked  out  about  six  inches  apart.  The 
average  yield  per  acre  is  about  9 cwt. ; but  in  the  very  cold 
north  of  Manchuria  and  Eastern  Mongolia,  where  it  is  chiefly 
cultivated,  as  much  as  14  cwt.  are  said  to  be  harvested.  A 
bushel  of  about  40  lb.  weight  costs  a little  over  half  a Mexican 
dollar,  or  a third  of  a Chinese  ounce  of  silver.  It  is  ground  into 


180 


MANCHURIA 


flour,  which  is  made  into  a kind  of  macaroni,  baked  into  cakes, 
or  boiled  to  the  consistency  of  gruel.  It  is  very  often  sown 
after  the  opium  poppy,  of  which  I shall  speak  hereafter,  and,  in 
case  of  a failure  of  the  millet  crop,  due  to  excessive  rainfall 
or  drought,  it  usually  takes  its  place,  so  that  one  harvest  may 
be  secured  from  the  soil. 

The  above  are  the  eight  cereals  grown  in  Manchuria,  and, 
where  farming  is  carried  on  on  a small  scale,  tall  millet  is  sown 
for  two  or  three  years  on  the  same  soil.  After  several  years, 
however,  it  is  found  that  the  grain  decreases  in  quality,  and 
a change  of  crop  becomes  necessary.  On  large  farms,  on 
the  other  hand,  a certain  rotation,  such  as  the  following,  is 
adopted 


1st  year  . 
2nd  year  . 
3rd  year  . 
4th  year  . 


Millet. 

Beans. 

Rice,  barley  or  wheat. 
Millet. 


There  is  another  corn  plant  cultivated  in  Manchuria,  namely, 
Coix  lachryma , L.,  which  derives  its  name  of  Job’s  Tears  from 
the  tear-like  shape  of  its  seed  capsules.  These  are  about  twice 
the  size  of  a pea,  hard,  glossy  and  of  a mottled  white  and  dark 
slate  colour.  Strung  together,  they  are  in  much  demand  for 
bracelets,  necklaces  and  rosaries.  It  is  cultivated  like  Indian 
com,  and  each  capsule  contains  one  seed  or  kernel  covered  with 
a thin  yellow  or  reddish  integument.  The  removal  of  the 
integument  reveals  a white  grain  (I -mi)  with  a groove  along 
one  side  extending  to  the  centre,  which  imparts  to  it  a re- 
semblance to  barley.  In  fact,  it  appears  in  the  export  list  of 
the  Imperial  Maritime  Customs  as  “ Pearl  Barley  ” ! The  seeds 
are  hard  and  brittle  like  rice.  In  the  Chinese  pharmacopoeia 
diuretic  and  cathartic  properties  are  attributed  to  them,  and, 
although  they  are  employed  in  making  sweetmeats,  their  chief 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS  181 


use  is  medicinal.  As  66  Pearl  Barley,”  Job’s  Tears  are  quoted 
in  the  Customs  Returns  at  about  two  and  a half  Haikwan 
taels  a picul  of  133^  lb.,  whereas  the  market  value  is  about 
three  times  that  amount. 

Next  in  importance  to  tall  millet  (Kao-liang)  as  an  article 
of  cultivation,  and  of  still  greater  importance  as  an  article  of 
external  trade,  is  pulse.  A large  variety  of  beans  is  grown  in 
Manchuria,  and,  together  with  their  resultants,  bean-cake  and 
bean-oil,  they  constitute  by  far  the  most  valuable  item  in  the 
export  trade  of  the  three  provinces.  In  the  month  of  April 
they  are  sown  by  hand  in  drills,  and  the  crop  is  ripe  in 
September ; but  as  regards  the  beans  of  commerce  there  is  an 
exception,  namely,  the  small,  green  bean  known  as  Lii-tou 
(Phaseolus  Mungo , L.),  which  ripens  as  early  as  July,  and  which 
can  be  sown  again  in  that  month  and  gathered  early  in  October. 
I shall  have  much  to  say  hereafter  in  regard  to  this  insignificant 
looking  bean,  which  is  the  subject  of  a considerable  industry 
throughout  Manchuria  and  Northern  China.  The  Chinese 
distinguish  the  beans  of  commerce  by  their  colours,  and  they 
are  known  as  Yellow  (Huang  Tou),  Green  (Ch’ing  Tou),  Black 
(Hei,  or  Wu  Tou),  White  (Pai  Tou),  Red  (Hung  Tou)  and 
Small  Green  (Lii  Tou).  The  yellow,  green  and  black  are 
varieties  of  the  soy  bean  ( Glycine  hispid  a , Moench .,  or  Dolichos 
soja , L.),  and  the  yield  per  acre,  which  requires  from  16  to  18 
lb.  of  seed,  is  estimated  at  from  27  to  39  bushels,  with  a weight 
of  about  40  lb.  per  bushel.  Each  pod  contains  usually  two 
but  sometimes  three  beans,  and  four  are  rare.  Each  variety  of 
the  soy  bean  has  a number  of  sub-species.  The  yellow  has 
three,  known  respectively  as  (n)  Pai-mei  (white  eyebrow),  from 
the  white  scar  on  the  saddle  or  point  of  attachment  to  the  pod  ; 
(b)  Chin-huang,  or  Chin-yuan  (golden  yellow  or  golden  round), 
from  the  golden  colour  and  more  rounded  shape  of  the  bean ; 
and  (c)  Hei-chi  (black  belly),  from  the  dark  brown  scar  on  the 


182 


MANCHURIA 


saddle.  All  the  three  sub-species  are  highly  prized  for  the 
quantity  of  oil  or  fat  which  they  contain,  but  sub-species  (a) 
and  ( b ) are  noted  for  the  quality  of  the  bean-curd  (Tou-fu)  or 
legumine  obtained  from  them,  as  well  as  for  the  sprouts  which 
are  procured  by  soaking  the  beans  in  water,  and  which  are 
greatly  relished  as  a vegetable. 

There  are  two  sub-species  of  the  green  bean  (Ch’ing-Tou) : — 

(a)  When  the  epidermis  is  green  and  the  inside  yellow. 
This  sub-species  is  said  to  yield  more  legumine  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  bean-curd  than  sub-species  (a)  and  ( b ) of  the  yellow 
bean,  but  the  quality  is  inferior.  It  is  also  boiled  and  used  as 
food. 

( b ) When  both  epidermis  and  inside  are  green.  These  two 
sub-species  yield  oil  or  fat,  but  not,  it  is  alleged,  so  abundantly 
as  the  yellow  bean  (Huang  Tou). 

The  black  bean  ( W u Tou)  has  three  sub-species : — 

(a)  Ta-wu-tou  (large  black  bean),  where  the  epidermis  is 
black  and  the  inside  green.  It  yields  oil  or  fat,  and  it  is 
likewise  boiled  with  millet  or  rice  and  used  for  food. 

(b)  Hsiao-wu-tou  (small  black  bean),  where  the  bean  is 
somewhat  smaller  than  the  sub-species  (a),  with  a black  epidermis 
and  yellow  inside.  It  is  largely  used  for  horse  feed  and  also 
yields  oil,  the  refuse  being  employed  for  feeding  pigs.  It  is 
likewise  pickled  for  food. 

(c)  Pien-wu-tou  (flat  black  bean),  where  the  epidermis  is 
black  and  the  inside  yellow.  It  is  flattened  and  elliptical  in 
shape,  and  is  mostly  used  for  pickling  and  for  horse  feed. 

These  three  varieties  of  the  soy  bean  are  distinguished  by 
their  ovoid  shape,  and  differ  from  the  ray -fruited  dwarf  bean 
(. Phaseolus  radiatus , Z,.),  which  is  much  smaller,  glossy  and 
ellipsoidal  with  blunted  ends,  and  which  includes  the  white  and 
red  beans  mentioned  above,  as  well  as  several  other  sub-species 
classed  according  to  their  colour,  as  variegated  (Hua),  black 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS 


183 


(Wu),  light  red  (Chih),  etc.  All  the  sub-species  are  white  inside 
and  very  brittle,  showing  that  they  contain  very  little  oil  or 
fat.  They  are  used  solely  for  food. 

The  Tou-fu,  or  bean-curd,  above  referred  to,  is  a product  of 
universal  consumption  in  China.  The  beans — yellow  or  green — 
are  steeped  overnight  in  cold  or,  if  time  is  an  object,  in  warm 
water.  In  the  morning  they  are  taken  out  much  swollen  and 
ground  in  a stone  mill,  water  being  poured  in  at  the  hole  in 
the  top  of  the  mill-stone  every  few  seconds  to  hasten  the  process. 
The  whole  is  then  collected  and  passed  through  a sieve  or  piece 
of  cloth,  which  retains  the  epidermis  of  the  beans.  The  filtrate 
is  thereafter  poured  into  a pot  and  brought  to  the  boil.  It  is 
then  poured  into  an  earthenware  karig , or  jar,  and  half  a bowl 
of  brine  (Lu  shui),  from  sea-salt,  well  diluted,  is  added  to  and 
stirred  in  it  to  cause  coagulation  of  the  legumine.  This  occurs 
in  about  an  hour,  when  it  is  transferred  to  a wooden  frame 
some  three  inches  deep,  with  wooden  sides  and  bottom,  whereon 
a cloth  has  been  previously  spread.  The  water  escapes  through 
the  cloth  and  by  a drainage  opening  at  the  end  of  the  frame, 
the  cloth  is  folded  over  the  legumine,  and  a lid  of  bamboos  or 
reeds  is  placed  on  the  top  and  weighted  with  stones  to  press 
out  the  moisture  and  shape  the  curd  to  the  size  of  the  frame. 
This  is  soon  completed ; the  stones  and  lid  are  removed ; and 
the  cloth  folded  back  exposes  a whitish  grey  mass  of  the  con- 
sistency of  cream  cheese.  It  is  now  ready  to  be  cut  up  by  knife, 
and  is  sold  at  from  8 to  9 copper  cash  (960  to  1,000  copper 
cash  = 1 Mexican  dollar  =*  about  2s.)  a catty  of  1J  lb.  Three 
sheng  (1  sheng  = 3 catties  = 4 lb.)  of  beans  will  yield  50 
catties,  or  66§  lb.  of  bean-curd.  Besides  the  actual  curd  various 
analogous  substances  are  produced,  such,  for  example,  as  Tou-fu - 
kan-tzu  (dry  bean-curd  cakes),  where  the  curd  is  cut  up  and 
undergoes  additional  pressure ; Tou-fu -nao  (bean-curd  brain),  a 
substance  of  less  consistency  than  the  curd  itself,  obtained  by 


184 


MANCHURIA 


putting  powdered  gypsum  instead  of  brine  in  the  filtrate  after 
it  has  been  brought  to  the  boil ; Tou-fu-p’i  (bean-curd  skin),  the 
scum  of  the  boiling  filtrate,  which  is  taken  off  and  hung  up  to 
dry ; Ch’ien-chang-tou-fu  (bean-curd  wafers  or  sheets),  made  by 
placing  thin  layers  of  the  legumine  in  cloth  and  subjecting 
them  to  considerable  pressure,  and  Tung-tou-fu  (frozen  bean- 
curd),  where  the  bean-curd  is  cut  up,  frozen  and  then  exposed 
to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  whereby  the  greater  part  of  the  moisture 
is  removed  during  the  process  of  thawing. 

I pass  now  to  the  Lii  Tou  (green  bean) — Phaseolus  mungo , 
L. — the  smallest  but  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  beans 
of  commerce  cultivated  in  Manchuria.  The  epidermis  is  of  a 
dark  green  colour,  while  the  inside  is  whitish  yellow,  shading 
to  green.  It  is  somewhat  blunted  at  the  ends  and  has  a white 
scar  on  the  saddle.  In  bulk  it  is  about  one-fifth  of  the  size 
of  a yellow  bean  (Hei  chi),  and  twenty  of  the  latter  taken  at 
random  weigh  as  much  as  a hundred  and  five  of  the  former. 
It  is  much  harder  than  the  soy  bean ; in  other  words,  it 
contains  little  oil  or  fat.  This  bean,  when  soaked  in  water, 
produces  excellent  sprouts,  but  it  is  mainly  and  universally 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  vermicelli.  The  process  of  manu- 
facture is  so  novel  and  unique  as  to  deserve  minute  description, 
and  it  is  just  possible  that  it  may  lead  to  similar,  if  not  so 
primitive,  industries  in  Western  lands.  The  beans  are  first 
steeped  for  a night  in  jars  of  cold  water.  Next  morning  they 
will  be  found  to  have  absorbed  so  much  moisture  as  to  be 
twice  their  original  size.  They  are  then  ground  up  between 
two  millstones,  and  the  liquid  mixture  passed  through  fine  sieves 
to  separate  the  flour  from  the  crushed  skins,  which  are  discarded. 
The  filtrate  is  poured  into  jars  of  water,  the  flour  sinks  to 
the  bottom,  and  all  floating  impurities  are  removed.  The 
water  is  poured  off!;  and  the  flour  packed  in  fine  hempen  bags, 
which  are  hung  up  in  the  sun  to  dry.  When  this  has  been 


' I 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS  185 

accomplished  the  bags  are  removed  and  the  contents  remain 
hard  masses  of  white  flour,  which  it  requires  considerable  pressure 
of  the  hands  to  break  up.  When  the  vermicelli  is  about  to 
be  manufactured  a little  of  the  bean  flour  is  placed  in  a wooden 
vessel  shaped  like  a calabash  and  mixed  thoroughly  with  cold 
water.  A small  quantity  of  this  mixture  is  then  transferred 
to  a similar  vessel,  and  boiling  water  is  poured  thereon  until 
it  is  more  than  half  full.  A man  armed  with  a rolling-pin 
then  beats  up  the  contents  with  great  rapidity  until  they 
become  of  a thick,  starchy  consistency,  when  the  sticky  mass 
is  dropped  into  a large  earthenware  jar,  where  another  work- 
man at  once  begins  to  knead  and  supply  it  with  as  much  of 
the  dry  flour  as  it  will  absorb.  This  process  is  repeated  until 
the  jar  is  nearly  full.  Half  a dozen  men  then  stand  round 
the  jar  and  knead,  beat  and  struggle  with  the  whole  mass, 
continually  supplying  it  with  dry  flour,  until  an  enormous 
quantity  has  been  absorbed  and  the  dough  no  longer  sticks 
to  the  hands  and  arms  of  the  workmen.  This  seems  to  be 
the  test  of  fitness  for  further  manipulation.  A wooden  calabash- 
shaped vessel,  perforated  in  the  bottom  with  forty-eight  small 
round  holes  and  having  an  iron  ring  fixed  on  the  edge  opposite 
the  handle,  is  then  selected  and  filled  with  a piece  of  the  dough 
several  pounds  in  weight.  The  vessel  is  then  hooked  to  a 
rope  attached  to  a cross  beam  of  the  roof  above  a cauldron 
of  boiling  water,  and  a man  holding  the  handle  of  the  vessel 
in  his  left  beats  with  his  right  hand  the  dough,  which  escapes 
in  strings  through  the  holes  in  the  bottom  and  falls  into  the 
boiling  water,  whence  it  is  immediately  drawn  into  a tub  of 
cold  water  by  another  individual  armed  with  a thin,  short 
bamboo.  When  sufficient  lengths  of  strings  have  been  obtained 
the  latter  severs  them  with  his  teeth.  The  vessel  is  constantly 
being  refilled  with  dough,  and  the  men  relieve  each  other  at 
the  laborious  beating  process.  When  the  strings  are  taken 


186 


MANCHURIA 


from  the  tub  of  cold  water  they  are  hung  over  a bamboo 
framework  to  dry,  and  are  afterwards  made  up  into  hanks  and 
bundles  for  market.  This  vermicelli  has  a beautiful  whitish 
watery  colour  resembling  to  a great  extent  isinglass,  from 
which,  however,  it  differs  in  that  it  is  impossible  to  melt  it 
by  boiling.  It  enters  largely  into  the  native  diet  throughout 
the  whole  of  China,  and  will  be  found  in  every  land  in  which 
Chinese  have  settled.  To  the  foreign  palate  it  is  somewhat 
insipid  and  tasteless,  but  it  should  not  be  difficult  to  add  to  a 
similarly  manufactured  article  any  desired  flavouring. 

Besides  these  beans  of  commerce  there  are  several  varieties 
of  garden  beans  cultivated  for  food,  such  as  the  Yiin  Tou,  of 
which  there  are  two  sub-species,  white  and  red  ; the  Chiang  Tou, 
with  several  sub-species,  pea-yellow  and  mixed,  dull  red  and 
yellow  predominating ; the  Mao  Tou,  or  hairy  bean,  with  short 
hairy  pods,  each  containing  one  to  three  beans  (epidermis  white 
and  inside  green)  ; and  the  Pien  Tou,  so  called  from  its  short 
but  broad  flat  pod,  which  also  contains  one  to  three  beans.  The 
last  named  is  the  Dolichos  lablab , L.  With  the  exception  of 
the  Mao  Tou  these  are  usually  cooked  and  eaten  with  the 
pods.  The  common  pea — Pisum  sativum , L. — is  also  grown  in 
Manchuria,  especially  in  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula.  As  stated 
above,  it  is  ground  up  with  barley  and  used  as  a ferment  in  the 
manufacture  of  spirit  (Shao  Chiu). 

In  1893  I had  occasion  to  contribute  to  the  Foreign  Office  a 
report  on  the  island  of  Formosa  (China,  Commercial , No.  XI., 
of  1893),  wherein,  dealing  with  the  textile  plants  grown  there,  I 
said : “ Three  of  the  most  valuable  textile  plants  cultivated  in 
China  are  not  grown  in  Formosa.  They  are  Gossypium  her- 
baceum , L .,  or  the  cotton  plant,  Cannabis  sativa , L .,  or  the  true 
hemp  plant,  and  Abutilon  avicennce , Gcertn .,  a plant  which  yields 
Abutilon  hemp.”  These  are  the  only  three  plants  cultivated  in 
Manchuria  for  their  fibres.  Cotton,  however,  is  not  grown  to 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS  187 


any  considerable  extent  except  in  the  southern  province,  and 
even  there  it  is  not  of  much  account  as  a crop ; but  true  hemp 
and  Abutilon  hemp  are  widely  cultivated  in  all  the  three 
provinces,  and  especially  in  the  north,  where  the  plants  of  the 
latter  attain  a great  height,  and  yield,  by  retting,  fibre  ribbons 
as  long  as  fifteen  feet.  The  average  length,  however,  is  from 
seven  to  ten  feet.  The  fibre  of  true  hemp,  which  is  less  cultivated 
than  Abutilon  hemp,  is  shorter  but  more  expensive,  costing  £20 
to  £25  a ton,  against  .^Pll  to  £13  for  the  latter.  The  fibre  of 
Abutilon  hemp  is  much  whiter  than  that  of  true  hemp,  but  its 
tenacity  is  not  nearly  so  great.  The  seed  of  both  these  hemps 
is  sown  in  April  in  drills — intervals  of  four  to  five  inches  being 
left  between  the  plants — and  the  crops  are  harvested  in  August. 
Sacking  and  coarse  cloth  are  manufactured  from  true  hemp,  and 
both  fibres  are  extensively  used  for  making  rope  and  cordage, 
large  quantities  of  which  as  well  as  of  sacking  are  required  for 
the  enormous  cart  traffic  of  the  interior.  The  large  leaves  of 
the  Abutilon  plant  are  greatly  used  for  the  adulteration  of 
tobacco.  I have  already  mentioned  that  mats  of  various  kinds 
are  made  from  the  outer  sheathing  of  the  millet  (Holms  sorghum , 
L.)  stalks,  but  still  more  important  are  the  stems  of  the  reed 
called  Phragmites  communis , Trin .,  which  grows  wild  in  many 
parts  of  Southern  Manchuria.  They  are  cut  up  into  different 
finenesses,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  mats  to  be  manufactured. 
They  are  also  woven  whole  into  very  large  mats  for  covering  the 
rafters  of  houses  before  the  tiles  are  put  on.  The  great  centre 
for  the  manufacture  of  these  reed  mats  is  the  district  of  Kai-p’ing, 
to  the  south  and  east  of  the  port  of  Newchwang. 

The  plants  grown  in  Manchuria  whose  seeds  yield  oil  are  six 
in  number.  They  are  (1)  Dolichos  sofa , L.,  or  soy  bean  above 
referred  to;  (2)  Ricinus  communis , L.,  or  castor-oil  plant;  (3) 
Sesamum  orientale , L. ; (4)  Perilla  ocymoides , L. ; (5)  Gossypium 
herhaceum , L.,  or  the  cotton  plant,  and  (6)  Cannabis  sativa , L., 


188 


MANCHURIA 


or  the  true  hemp  plant.  The  names  and  uses  of  the  oils  are 
the  following:  (1)  Tou  yu — cooking,  mixing  paints  and  light- 
ing ; (2)  Ta  ma  (or  Pi  ?na)  yu — lubricating  and  candle  making ; 
(3)  Hsiang  yu — cooking ; (4)  Su  yu — boiled  and  used  in  place 
of  linseed  oil ; (5)  Hua  tzu  (or  Hei)  yu — lighting,  softening 
leather  and  harness,  and  as  hair  oil ; and  (6)  Ma  tzu  yu — 
mixing  paints.  All  these  seeds,  with  the  exception  of  sesamum 
seeds,  which  are  roasted,  are  crushed,  steamed  and  subjected  to 
great  pressure,  and  the  following  table  gives  approximately  the 
percentage  and  value  of  the  oil  extracted  : — 


Oil-yielding  Seeds. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Oil. 

Refuse  Cakes. 

Taels 

Taels 

per  100 

per  100 

Catties. 

Taels. 

Catties. 

Catties. 

Catties. 

Catties. 

Beans 

IOO 

1 67 

9 

6-70 

97’5 

1*10 

Perilla  Seed  . 

25-26 

0-40 

9 

6*50 

20 

0*65 

Hemp  Seed  . 

30 

0*29 

6‘5 

5-60 

24 

o-5 

Castor  Seed  . 

25 

0*32 

12 

5*80 

15 

o*8 

Sesamum  Seed 

29 

1 30 

13 

IO'OO 

15 

0*65 

Cotton  Seed  . 

IOO 

0*64 

10 

i /4*oo\ 
j l3’4o/ 

1 

? 

f 1*20 
\o*6o 

The  ground  nut  ( Arachis  hypogcea , L.)  is  cultivated  in 
Manchuria  for  food,  not,  however,  to  any  great  extent,  and  oil 
is  not  extracted  from  the  nuts  as  in  the  south  of  China. 

So  far  as  I can  gather,  the  only  dye-plant  grown  in  Man- 
churia is  the  Dyer’s  Knot  weed  ( Polygonum  tinctorium , L.). 
True  indigo  from  Indigqfera  tinctoria , L.,  is  not  a product  of 
these  provinces ; but  the  polygonum  yields  a similar  blue  dye, 
which  is  universally  employed  in  the  many  large  dyeing  estab- 
lishments of  Manchuria,  where  it  is  called  Lan-tien.  The  seeds 
are  sown  in  April,  in  drills  about  nine  inches  to  a foot  apart, 
and  in  the  latter  half  of  September,  and,  before  blossoming,  the 
plants  are  cut  down  near  the  roots,  steeped  tips  downwards  in 
lime-lined  vats  containing  water  and  weighted  with  stones. 
The  steeping  lasts  thirty-six  hours.  The  plants  are  then 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS 


189 


removed,  and  the  water  in  which  they  were  steeped — now  green 
in  colour — is  poured  into  large  earthenware  jars,  standing  on 
a concrete  floor,  having  a conduit  leading  to  a large  tank  sunk 
in  the  ground.  Into  another  similar  jar,  also  containing  green 
water  from  the  vat,  a piece  of  lime  is  placed,  and  a part  of  the 
stirred-up  mixture,  weighing  about  three  pounds  and  of  the 
consistency  of  cream,  all  undissolved  lime  and  impurities  being 
avoided,  is  poured  into  each  of  the  other  jars.  A man  then 
proceeds  to  beat  the  contents  of  each  jar  with  a square  piece  of 
wood,  in  the  centre  of  which  a long  wooden  handle  is  fixed. 
Gradually  the  green  water  assumes  a dark  blue  colour,  and  it  is 
calculated  that  when  five  hundred  blows  have  been  struck  the 
grain  has  been  completely  separated.  The  jar  is  then  emptied 
into  the  conduit,  by  which  the  contents  find  their  way  to  the 
tank.  Here  the  blue  granules  sink  to  the  bottom,  and,  when 
the  surface  water  is  removed,  the  sediment  is  collected  and 
made  up  into  cakes  for  market  as  dry  indigo,  or  poured  into 
waterproof  papered  baskets  and  sold  under  the  name  of  liquid 
indigo. 

The  opium  poppy  ( Papaver  somniferum , L.)  is  cultivated 
throughout  the  whole  of  Manchuria ; but  the  great  centre  of 
production  and  export  lies  to  the  north  of  the  Sungari,  in  the 
south  of  the  province  of  Hei-lung-chiang,  and  the  chief  market 
for  the  drug  is  the  city  of  K’uan-ch’eng-tzu  or  Ch’ang-ch’un  Fu  in 
the  province  of  Kirin.  The  reason  given  for  the  more  extensive 
cultivation  in  the  north  is  that  the  expense  of  carrying  cereals 
and  pulse  to  a market  in  the  south  is  too  great,  whereas  opium, 
being  less  bulky  and  more  valuable,  admits  of  easy  transport, 
and  can  be  at  once  exchanged  for  ready  money.  There  is  a 
great  demand  for  this  opium  in  Northern  China,  and  agents 
visit  Manchuria  annually  and  carry  back  the  drug  overland  in 
small  fast  carts  during  the  winter  months,  avoiding  the  main 
roads  and  the  tax  stations  established  along  them.  It  is  also 


190 


MANCHURIA 


extensively  smuggled,  being  readily  concealed  among  the  pro- 
duce brought  down  in  large  carts.  The  poppy  occupies  the 
ground  from  March  to  July,  when  the  capsules  are  ripe  for 
bleeding.  Curiously  enough,  the  scarifying  is  done  horizontally, 
not  vertically,  as  in  Western  and  Central  China,  and,  it  is 
alleged,  very  imperfectly,  the  sap  being  collected  as  soon  as  it 
exudes  and  not  allowed  to  stand  over  till  next  morning,  as  is 
the  custom  throughout  India  and  in  the  great  producing  centres 
of  Western  China.  It  is  impossible  to  arrive  at  even  an  ap- 
proximate estimate  of  the  quantity  produced  in,  and  exported 
from,  Manchuria,  for  none,  or  at  least  very  little  of  it,  passes 
through  the  Foreign  Customs  ; but  one  thing  is  certain,  sufficient 
is  grown  to  supply  all  local  wants  and  to  admit  of  a considerable 
export  overland  and  by  junk.  Moreover,  taxation  being  light, 
it  is  about  half  the  price  of  Indian  opium,  the  import  of  which 
is  yearly  declining,  none  having  been  admitted  during  the 
Japanese  occupation  of  the  port  of  Newchwang  in  1895,  and 
only  32T3  piculs  (including  one  picul  of  Persian),  or  4,284  lb., 
arriving  in  1896.  It  is  stated  in  favour  of  the  native  article 
that  the  ashes  can  be  re-smoked  much  oftener  than  those  of  the 
Indian  opium.  Many  of  the  labourers  returning  to  Chefoo 
before  the  closing  of  the  port  in  winter  invest  their  savings  in 
native  opium  and  smuggle  it  across  to  Shantung.  Seizures  are 
frequently  made  on  board  steamer  by  the  Custom  House 
authorities  at  Newchwang,  and  in  1896  the  risk  of  losing  their 
earnings  was  so  great  that  one  group  of  men  banded  themselves 
together  and  reported  and  paid  duty  on  20  lb.  of  the  drug  of 
the  value  of  $68*46. 

The  variety  of  the  tobacco  plant  grown  in  Manchuria  is 
Nicotiana  rustica , />.,  introduced  from  Manila  through  Japan 
and  Corea.  It  is  widely  cultivated  in  all  the  three  provinces ; 
but  the  product  of  Kirin  is  said  to  possess  the  best  flavour,  and 
it  realises  the  highest  price.  The  seed  is  sown  in  May,  and  the 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS 


191 


harvest  takes  place  in  October.  In  the  far  north  the  crop  runs 
a great  risk  of  being  destroyed  by  early  frosts.  The  plants  are 
cut  down  near  the  root  and  hung  up  to  dry  in  the  sun,  after 
which  the  leaves  are  slowly  pressed  and  assorted.  In  Kirin  the 
price  ranges  from  $9  to  $12  per  picul  (133£  lb.)  for  whole 
leaves  and  from  $7*50  to  $10  per  picul  for  rolled  broken 
leaves,  while  the  product  of  the  southern  province  ranges  from 
$6  to  $9  for  whole,  and  $5  to  $7*50  for  broken,  leaves  re- 
spectively. In  matter  of  bulk  tobacco  ranks  next  to  beans 
and  hemp  in  the  trade  of  the  interior,  and  it  is  carried  over- 
land and  by  junk  to  the  northern  provinces  of  China  in  very 
large  quantities.  The  product  of  Manchuria  is  not  appreciated 
in  the  south  of  China,  and  little  is  exported  by  steamer.  As 
stated  above,  it  is  adulterated  with  the  fine  big  leaves  of  the 
Abutilon  hemp  plant. 

The  most  important  and  most  valuable  of  all  the  medicinal 
plants  grown  in  Manchuria  is  ginseng  ( Panaoc  ginseng,  C.  A. 
Meyer).  Whether  the  root  actually  possesses  any  therapeutic 
properties  is  a disputed  point ; but  the  Chinese  have  implicit 
confidence  in  its  virtues,  and  so  long  as  that  exists  the  demand 
for  it  will  continue.  As  in  Corea,  it  is  indigenous  to  the 
country,  and  it  is  found  in  a wild  state  in  the  forests  of  Kirin, 
especially  in  the  Ch’ang-pai  Shan  range,  where  ginseng  seekers 
annually  scour  the  mountains  in  search  of  it.  When  a wild 
plant  is  found  its  age  is  carefully  noted  by  observing  the 
quantity  of  its  foliage.  I am  told  that  a plant  of  one  year’s 
growth  has  only  one  three-fingered  leaf  on  a short  stem  ; in  the 
second  year  two  similar  leaves  ; in  the  third  year  the  leaves  are 
four-fingered,  and  so  on  until  in  the  fifth  year  it  has  a longish 
stalk  with  several  petioles  each  with  five-fingered  leaves.  After 
this  it  blossoms  and  fruits,  throwing  up  a continuation  of  its 
stalk,  crowned  with  an  umbel,  from  the  junction  of  the  petioles. 
In  the  seventh  year  the  root  is  sufficiently  matured  to  be  dug 


192 


MANCHURIA 


up  and  prepared  for  market.  In  Japan,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
matures  much  more  rapidly,  being  ripe  in  the  third  or  fourth 
year.  If,  then,  the  plant,  which  has  been  discovered  in  a wild 
state,  has  already  reached,  or  is  approaching,  maturity,  it  is 
either  dug  up  or  its  position  carefully  marked  until  it  has  fully 
matured.  If,  however,  it  is  still  young,  it  is  usually  dug  up  and 
transplanted  near  the  spot  where  it  has  been  found  (the  trans- 
planting causing  it  to  grow  more  rapidly),  or  in  a place  where 
it  will  be  under  the  eye  and  care  of  the  cultivator.  This  trans- 
planting distinguishes  the  first  from  the  second  quality  of  the 
drug.  The  root  which  matures  in  an  entirely  wild  state  is  the 
more  valuable.  But  nearly  all  the  ginseng  exported  from  Man- 
churia is  grown  from  seed  which  is  sown  in  narrow  beds  in  the 
valleys  among  the  mountains,  and  this  constitutes  the  third 
quality.  In  growing  from  seed  the  plants  are  invariably  trans- 
planted when  they  are  a year  old.  After  the  matured  roots  are 
dug  up  they  are  thoroughly  washed  in  cold  water,  and  every 
particle  of  earth  removed  by  a soft  brush,  great  care  being 
taken  that  the  epidermis  is  not  bruised  or  injured.  They  are 
then  of  a yellowish  white  colour ; but  in  their  natural  fresh  state 
they  would  soon  rot,  so  that  steps  have  to  be  taken  to  preserve 
them.  An  ordinary  rice  bowl  is  filled  half  full  of  clean  sugar 
(white  or  brown,  according  to  the  colour  to  be  imparted  to  the 
roots),  and  boiling  water  is  poured  thereon.  When  cool  the 
mixture  is  of  a treacly  consistency,  and  it  is  then  used  for  coat- 
ing the  roots,  being  applied  by  means  of  a soft  brush.  When 
coated  the  roots  are  laid  on  a piece  of  clean  cloth,  spread  on 
the  top  of  a grating  over  a pot  of  boiling  water,  a wooden  lid 
or  cap  being  placed  over  all.  The  steam  ascending  through  the 
cloth  softens  the  roots,  which  absorb  part  of  the  sugar,  the 
remainder  finding  its  way  through  the  cloth  into  the  boiling 
water,  where  it  ultimately  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  pot  and 
recrystallises.  This  sugar,  not  unlike  toffee,  has  acquired  a 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS 


193 


slight  flavour  of  ginseng,  and  is  sold  as  “ginseng  sugar”  at 
about  a dollar  a catty.  During  the  steaming  of  the  ginseng 
roots  the  coating  of  sugar  is  frequently  applied,  until  they  are 
sufficiently  sweetened.  They  are  then  removed  from  the  steamer 
and  spread  on  trays  to  dry  in  a not  too  powerful  sun.  When 
dry  this  ginseng,  now  less  than  one-third  of  its  original  weight, 
is  very  much  softer  than  Corean  ginseng,  which  is  nearly  as  hard 
as  stone  and  very  brittle.  In  Japan,  ginseng,  although  also  sun- 
dried,  is  usually  baked  for  two  or  three  days  in  kilns  heated  to 
a temperature  of  210°  to  250°  Fahr.,  and  probably  some  similar 
system  is  adopted  in  Corea.  At  any  rate,  I am  assured  that 
considerable  quantities  of  Manchurian  ginseng  are  taken  to 
Corea  for  treatment,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  much  of  the  so- 
called  Corean  ginseng  exported  from  Manchuria  is  really  native- 
grown  ginseng  preserved  in  Corea.  True,  in  former  years,  when 
Corea  paid  annual  tribute  to  China,  Corean  ginseng  was 
brought  into  Manchuria  in  large  quantities,  for  the  members 
of  the  Mission,  whose  route  to  Peking  lay  through  Southern 
Manchuria,  were  permitted  to  carry,  free  of  duty,  certain  fixed 
amounts,  each  according  to  his  rank.  It  is  laid  down  in  No. 
VIII.  of  the  rules  agreed  upon  between  China  and  Corea  for  the 
traffic  on  the  frontier  between  Liao-tung  and  Corea,  of  March, 
1883,  that  “ if  the  Envoys  do  not  carry  merchandise  with  them, 
each  officer  will  be  allowed,  free  of  duty,  any  quantity  of  cloth- 
ing, private  effects,  books  and  medicines,  not  exceeding  three 
hundred  catties  in  weight.  The  junior  Legation  officers  and 
the  suite  who  may  be  desirous  of  participating  in  the  advan- 
tages arising  from  the  carriage  of  goods  will  be  allowed  a 
quantity  of  red  ginseng,  limited  in  the  case  of  Legation  officers 
to  twenty  catties  each,  and  in  the  case  of  attendants  or  followers 
to  ten  catties  each.”  Nor  is  there  reason  to  suppose  that  these 
defined  weights  were  strictly  adhered  to. 


194 


MANCHURIA 


a series  of  fine  parallel  horizontal  wrinkles  or  indentations,  which, 
if  natural,  stamp  the  root  in  the  eyes  of  a ginseng  connoisseur 
as  valuable  on  account  of  its  age  ; but  the  Chinese  in  Manchuria 
are  clever  enough  to  produce  artificial  indentations  if  they  do 
not  naturally  exist  or  are  insufficient  in  number.  During  the 
steaming  process  a thread  is  wound  round  the  head.  The 
steaming  causes  the  root  to  swell,  with  the  exception  of  the 
parts  bound  by  the  thread,  and  when  the  root  contracts  in 
drying  the  artificial  wrinkles  remain. 

There  is,  again,  a recognised  taste  in  the  matter  of  ginseng. 
The  southern  provinces  of  China,  such  as  Kwangtung,  Kwangsi 
and  Fuhkien,  take  white  only,  whereas  the  central  provinces, 
such  as  Kiangsu,  Anhui,  Hunan  and  Hupeh,  prefer  the  red,  and, 
to  satisfy  the  latter  taste,  brown  instead  of  white  sugar  is  used 
for  coating  the  roots  while  they  are  being  steamed,  thereby 
imparting  a pale  reddish  tint  to  the  epidermis.  Much  of  the 
Corean  ginseng  is  pronouncedly  red  ; but  whether  this  colour- 
ing is  artificial,  or  due,  as  some  think,  to  the  ferruginous  soil 
in  which  it  is  grown,  I am  not  in  a position  to  say.  It  is 
impossible  to  state  even  approximately  the  value  of  ginseng, 
for  the  real  wild  root  has  been  known  to  realise  a thousand 
times  its  own  weight  in  silver,  while  ordinary  cultivated  ginseng 
may  be  purchased  in  the  market  for  about  two  taels  (say,  seven 
shillings)  a catty  of  one  and  a third  pounds.  The  clarified 
ginseng  exported  to  China  from  the  United  States  is  made  from 
the  root  of  Panax  quinquejolium , L.,  a species  of  ginseng  which 
grows  in  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  and  I cannot  do  better 
than  conclude  these  remarks  on  ginseng  with  a little  anecdote 
appropriate  to  the  subject.  A Chinese  merchant  was  present 
at  one  of  the  United  States  Exhibitions,  and  was  there  intro- 
duced to  an  American  gentleman,  who  asked  him  to  take  a glass 
of  wine  with  him.  In  the  course  of  conversation  the  merchant 
asked  the  American  the  nature  of  his  business,  and  the  latter 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS  195 


replied  that  he  was  a large  manufacturer  of  clarified  ginseng. 
“ Ah  ! ” said  the  Chinese,  “ ginseng  is  a very  valuable  medicine 
in  my  country.  Pray,  sir,  can  you  tell  me  what  its  specific 
medicinal  properties  are  ? ,1  64  Well,”  said  the  American,  44  per- 

haps as  a manufacturer  I ought  not  to  say  so,  but,  in  my 
opinion,  ginseng  has  no  more  medicinal  virtues  than  an  ordinary 
carrot ! ” 

The  following  plants,  whose  roots  are  also  used  in  medicine, 
are  grown  in  Manchuria  : Platycordon  gi'andifiorum , D.C.  ; 
Poeonia  albiflora,  Pall.  ; Peucedaneum  terebinthaceum , Fisch.  ; 
Asarwm  sieboldi , Miq.  ; Glycyrrhiza  glabra , L.,  et  palladiflora , 
Maxim.  (Liquorice)  ; Gentiana  scabra , Bunge  ; A riscema  sp.  ; 
Astilibe  chinensis , Franck,  et  Sav. ; Astralagus  hoantchy , Franck.  ; 
Ptarmica  sibirica , Lebed.  ; Atractylis  ovata , Thunb. ; Aconitum 
kusnezqfii , Rich. ; Angelica  incequalis,  Max.  ; Lithosperum  ery- 
throrhizon , Sieb.  et  Zucc. ; Polygonatum  officinale , All.  The 
bark  of  Phellodendron  amurense , Rupr .,  and  Dictamnus  albus , 
and  the  leaves  of  Ephedra  vulgaris , Rich.,  and  Clematis 
heracleaffolia,  D.C. , are  grown  and  exported  for  medicinal 
purposes,  as  also  the  seeds  and  fruits  of  Plantago  major, 
L. ; Coix  lachryma,  L. ; Crataegus  pinnatifida,  Bunge  ; Pinus 
coraiensis , Sieb.  et  Zucc. ; Arctium  lappa,  L. ; Cuscata  chinen- 
sis, Lam. ; Schizandra  chinensis,  Baill. ; Prunusjaponica,  Thunb. 
(kernels),  and  the  leaves  or  grass  of  Equisetum  hiemale,  L. 
Curiously  enough,  the  castor-oil  plant — Ricinus  communis,  L. — 
which,  as  stated  above,  is  cultivated  for  its  oil,  is  not  looked 
upon  as  medicinal. 

I propose  to  conclude  this  chapter  with  an  enumeration  of 
the  vegetables  and  fruits  of  Manchuria.  The  former  include 
several  varieties  of  the  potato  ( Solanum  tuberosum,  L.)  of 
excellent  quality,  two  varieties  of  the  turnip  (round  red 
and  long  green),  two  varieties  of  the  radish  (red  and  white), 
the  carrot,  garlic,  onion,  leek,  celery,  brinjal  or  egg-plant 


196 


MANCHURIA 


( Solatium  melongena , L.\  taro  and,  most  important  of  all, 
Shantung  cabbage  (Pai  ts’ai — Brassica  campestris , L.).  The 
last  named  enters  largely  into  the  diet  of  the  people,  and  is 
universally  cultivated,  not  merely  in  gardens,  but  in  fields.  It 
does  not,  however,  attain  the  size,  nor  does  it  possess  the  quality, 
of  the  cabbage  grown  from  the  same  seed  in  the  Shantung 
province,  more  especially  in  the  Lai-chou  prefecture,  and  the 
following  story,  perhaps  slightly  exaggerated,  will  give  an  idea 
of  the  proportions  which  it  there  develops.  A gentleman  in 
Chefoo  received  a letter  from  a friend  in  Lai-chou  announcing 
that  he  was  sending  him  a present  of  a cabbage.  The  recipient 
was  somewhat  annoyed  at  what  he  considered  the  insignificance 
of  the  gift,  tossed  the  letter  aside,  and  thought  nothing  more 
of  the  matter  until  a day  or  two  afterwards  when  his  servant 
reported  to  him  that  a cabbage  had  arrived,  and  that  the  carter 
evidently  expected  a pourboire.  44  Carter  ! ” said  the  gentleman, 
44  what  do  you  mean  P Has  the  cabbage  come  by  cart  ? ” 
64  Yes,  sir,11  replied  the  servant,  64  the  cart  is  now  at  the  gate.” 
Determined  to  get  to  the  bottom  of  the  matter,  he  went  to  the 
gate,  and  there  lay  a huge  cabbage  about  400  lb.  in  weight, 
occupying  the  whole  of  the  cart ! 44  That  cabbage,”  said  the 

gentleman,  44  lasted  me  a whole  winter.”  White  hearts,  each 
weighing  20  lb.  and  upwards,  from  Shantung  are  frequently 
to  be  seen  in  the  market  at  Newchwang.  They  likewise  include 
many  forms  and  varieties  of  the  Cucurbitacece  melon,  pumpkin, 
squash,  vegetable  marrow,  cucumber  and  gourd — of  which  the 
following  are  the  native  names : Hsiang  Kua,  Wo  Kua,  Tung 
Kua  ( Benincasa  cerifera,  Savi),  Ssu  Kua  {Luffa  petola , Ser.), 
Huang  Kua  ( Cucumis  sativus , />.),  Hsi  Kua,  Yii  Kua,  Lai  Kua, 
Sao  Kua,  Sai  Kua,  Hu  tzu  and  Hu  lu  (gourd — Langenaria 
vulgaris , Ser.).  The  last  named  is  cultivated  for  its  hard  shells 
only,  which,  cut  in  two,  make  excellent  water  balers,  just  as 
another  variety  called  Ta  Kua  is  grown  for  its  seeds,  which  are 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS  197 


used  for  food  and  exported  in  considerable  quantities  under  the 
name  of  “ melon  seeds  It  is  generally,  although  erroneously, 
supposed  that  these  seeds  are  derived  from  all  varieties  of 
melons.  They  are,  however,  the  produce  of  the  Ta  Kua,  which 
is  cultivated  like  other  crops;  but  it  is  so  exhausting  to  the 
soil  that  six  years  are  allowed  to  elapse  before  it  is  grown  on  the 
same  ground.  Another  important  vegetable  in  Manchuria  is 
Chieh  (kai)  t’sai.  It  develops  a bulb  inferior  in  size  to  a turnip, 
and  has  numerous  long,  broad,  finely  scalloped  leaves.  Both 
bulb  and  leaves  are  salted  in  jars  and  eaten  as  a pickle.  This 
is  the  vegetable  which  is  exported  from  Ssu-ch’uan  in  such  large 
quantities  under  the  name  of  u salted  turnips  Sweet  basil 
(Hsiang  ts’ai — Ocimum  basilicum , L.)  is  also  cultivated,  and  the 
following  wild  plants  are  also  eaten  : Shu-mu- ts’ai,  K’u  ts’ai 
(Lactuca  brevirostris , Champ .),  Hsien  ts’ai,  P’u  sun  (rush  shoots) 
and  the  bulbs  of  Pai  Ho,  a species  of  lilium.  The  seeds  of  the 
sunflower  are  also  roasted  and  eaten.  Three  kinds  of  edible 
fungus — Huang  mu,  Pai  mu  and  Mu  erh — grow  on  dead  wood, 
principally  in  the  east  of  Kirin  province.  Foreign  vegetables, 
such  as  the  tomato,  lettuce,  cabbage,  Jerusalem  artichoke, 
celery,  etc.,  grow  well  in  Manchuria. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  Vitis,  notably  Vitis  vinifera , L., 
Vitis  Labrusca,  L.,  Vitis  heterophylla , Thunb.,  and  Vitis  seriance- 
Jolia , Maxim .,  and  excellent  grapes,  round  and  long  green  and 
purple,  are  produced.  The  common  pear  of  Manchuria  is  hard 
and  insipid ; but  there  is  one  kind,  called  Hsiang-shui-li,  grown 
in  the  Liao -yang  district,  which  is  famed  for  its  sweetness.  It 
is,  however,  so  soft  that  it  does  not  readily  bear  transit  in  a 
fresh  state.  It  is  preserved  and  packed  in  boxes  like  figs.  The 
usual  varieties  are  Pyrus  baccata,  L.,  Pyrus  sinensis,  Lindl., 
and  Pyrus  spectabilis,  Ait.  Apples  are  poor,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Siberian  crab  apple  and  a small  red  variety  called  Hung- 
tzu,  grown  in  the  Kai-p’ing  district  to  the  south  of  the  port  of 


198 


MANCHURIA 


Newchwang.  Chestnuts,  walnuts,  peaches,  plums  and  apricots 
all  grow  well,  and  the  kernels  of  the  last  named  are  exported 
under  the  name  of  “bitter  almonds11.  A kind  of  cherry  is  said 
to  be  cultivated  in  the  Liao-yang  district;  but  it  is  more 
probably  the  fruit  of  Prunus  tomentosa,  Thumb.  Cob-nuts, 
flat-topped  from  Corylus  heterophylla , Fish.,  and  pointed  from 
Corylus  rostrata , Ait.,  grow  wild  in  the  hills;  but  they  are  of 
very  poor  quality.  Jujubes — known  as  “red  dates”  (Hung 
tsao) — are  the  fruit  of  Zizyphus  vulgaris , Lam.,  and  are  largely 
used  in  making  sweetmeats.  The  fruit  of  the  hawthorn  (Shan 
cha — Crataegus  pinnatifida , Bunge)  grows  to  a large  size,  and 
is  highly  appreciated  as  a condiment.  Strawberries,  barberries, 
gooseberries  and  currants  are  found  wild,  but  they  are  not 
cultivated  except  in  the  gardens  of  foreign  residents. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


ANIMAL  AND  MINERAL  PRODUCTS 

THE  most  valuable  of  all  the  animal  products  of  Manchuria 
is  silk — raw,  wild  silk — the  produce  of  Antheraea  Pernyi, 
otherwise  known  as  Bombyx  Pernyi  and  Bombyx  Fantoni,  which 
feeds  and  spins  on  the  oak  called  Quercus  mongolica.  The  silk 
region,  however,  is  confined  to  the  province  of  Feng-t’ien,  and 
extends  from  the  sea  on  the  south  to  a little  to  the  south  and 
east  of  Moukden,  its  western  and  eastern  boundaries  being  the 
Liao  and  Ya-lu  rivers  respectively.  In  other  words,  the  silk 
district  of  Manchuria  is  limited  to  that  portion  of  the  province 
of  F£ng-Pien  in  which  the  hill  slopes  face  the  south.  A few 
scattered  families  feed  the  worm  on  mulberry  leaves  and  obtain 
a little  silk  for  private  use,  and  others,  again,  reel  silk  from 
the  cocoons  of  worms  which  feed  on  the  leaves  of  Ailanthus 
glandulosa , Desf. ; but  the  latter  contain  only  an  insignificant 
quantity  of  silk,  and  neither  mulberry  nor  ailanthus-fed  silk 
can  be  considered  a factor  in  the  silk  production  and  trade  of 
Manchuria. 

Antheraea  Pernyi  is  bivoltini,  and  the  imago  of  the  autumn 
cocoon,  which  is  completed  in  the  end  of  September  or  early  in 
October,  does  not,  owing  to  the  cold  experienced  during  the 
winter  months  in  Manchuria,  emerge  from  the  pupa  state  until 
the  beginning  of  May.  In  that  month  the  females  lay  their 
eggs,  sometimes  on  sheets  of  paper,  but  usually  on  cloth  prepared 
for  their  reception.  The  eggs  are  then  exposed  to  the  air  and 
the  worms  hatched  in  about  six  days.  Immediately  after  hatching 

(199) 


200 


MANCHURIA 


they  are  placed  on  leaves  gathered  from  the  oak  bushes  springing 
from  the  roots  of  the  oak  trees,  which  are  purposely  felled  at 
the  end  of  five  or  six  years,  so  that  tenderer  leaves  may  be 
obtained  from  the  young  shoots.  On  these  leaves  they  feed 
until  the  first  moult  or  “sleep,”  when  they  are  transferred  to 
the  bushes  themselves.  They  attain  maturity  in  from  fifty  to 
sixty  days  from  the  time  of  hatching,  and  then  proceed  to  spin 
their  cocoons — a process  which  occupies  about  five  days.  When 
the  cocoons  are  completed  they  are  collected  from  the  trees,  and 
the  leaves  and  silk  threads  joining  them  thereto  are  removed, 
leaving  the  cocoons  and  the  envelopes  of  silk  which  surround 
them. 

To  reel  the  silk  from  the  cocoons  about  ten  and  a half  pints 
of  water  are  poured  into  an  ordinary  Chinese  iron  cooking  pot 
or  open  pan  and  brought  to  the  boil.  To  this  are  added 
eight  ounces  of  crude  soda,  itself  a Manchurian  product,  and 
thoroughly  dissolved,  and  when  the  solution  is  off  the  boil  a 
thousand  cocoons  are  dipped  and  tossed  about  in  it  for  some 
five  minutes,  so  that  they  may  be  impregnated  with  it  without 
being  filled.  They  are  then  placed  in  a basket,  and  the  solution 
which  has  not  been  absorbed  is  poured  over  them.  Meantime 
another  pot  of  water  with  a wooden  grating  just  touching  the 
surface  of  the  water  has  been  brought  to  the  boil,  and  the 
basket  containing  the  cocoons  is  placed  on  the  grating.  The 
whole  is  then  covered  with  a wooden  cap  fitting  into  strands 
of  plaited  Abutilon  hemp,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  steam. 
Here  the  cocoons  remain  from  one  and  a half  to  three  hours. 
The  fire  is  then  drawn,  and  after  the  lapse  of  fifteen  hours  the 
cap  is  taken  off  and  the  basket  of  cocoons  removed.  A workman 
now  takes  each  cocoon  separately  and  removes  by  hand  the 
outer  envelope  of  silk,  leaving  only  the  reelable  cocoon.  When 
fifty  have  been  thus  treated  they  are  placed  on  a table,  and 
a workman  at  once  proceeds  to  reel  them,  taking  the  filaments 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


201 


of  eight,  ten  or  twelve  cocoons,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  form 
a thread.  Reeling  from  cocoons  in  hot  water  is  now  out  of 
fashion  in  Manchuria.  The  wheel  on  which  the  silk  is  reeled 
is  four-sided,  and  so  formed  that  the  centre  bar  can  be  pushed 
out  so  as  to  facilitate  the  removal  of  the  reeled  silk,  and  as 
a rule  eighty  cocoons  are  required  to  make  a skein.  Three 
skeins  go  to  a hank,  so  that  a thousand  cocoons  make  four 
hanks  ; but  the  weight  of  skeins  and  hanks  varies  considerably. 
As  the  filament  becomes  finer  and  thinner  as  it  nears  the  centre 
of  the  cocoon,  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  obtain  a uniform 
thread,  to  add  a cocoon  or  two  during  the  reeling.  A peculiarity 
of  this  wild  silk  is  that  the  filament,  or  rather  the  double  filament 
— for  the  two  spinning  ducts  unite  and  form  one  tube  under  the 
mouth  of  the  worm — is  flattened,  not  round,  as  in  the  case  of 
Bombyx  Mori,  with  the  result  that  when  the  silk  is  thrown,  i.e ., 
twisted  to  form  thread,  it  is  not  so  even  as  the  thread  from  the 
latter.  But  in  the  manufacture  of  pongees,  for  which  this  silk 
is  locally  used,  the  silk  is  not  thrown.  Each  skein  or  hank  is 
rinsed  through  tepid  and  cold  water  to  remove  the  soda,  and 
when  it  is  half  dried  it  is  again  dipped  in  bean-flour  water,  to 
which  a little  melted  glue  has  been  added,  so  that  the  filaments 
constituting  the  thread  may  be  united  for  weaving  purposes. 

To  facilitate  mere  reeling  the  treatment  of  the  cocoons 
as  above  described  is  perfect ; but  the  process  is  very  inj  urious 
to  the  silk  itself.  In  the  first  place,  the  alkali  solution  used 
to  dissolve  the  gum  in  the  cocoons  is  far  too  strong,  and,  in 
the  second  place,  the  pans  should  not  be  made  of  iron,  for  the 
alkali  combines  with  the  iron  and  discolours  the  silk,  thus 
rendering  it  unsuited  for  dyeing  any  but  the  darker  colours. 
For  this  reason  only  copper  pans  are  used  in  the  Shantung 
province,  and  hence  it  is  that  the  Shantung  wild  silk  is  of  a 
lighter  colour  than  the  Manchurian.  Moreover,  the  high 
temperature  to  which  the  cocoons  are  exposed  so  long  detracts 


202 


MANCHURIA 


from  the  strength  and  elasticity  of  the  silk,  which  are  declared 
to  be  greater  than  in  the  case  of  mulberry-fed  silk.  The 
result  is  that  when  the  silk  arrives  in  Europe  it  has  to  be 
unwound  and  carefully  cleaned  before  it  is  thrown.  The 
cocoons  of  the  spring  crop  (i.e.,  spun  in  July),  although 
they  contain  much  less  silk  than  the  cocoons  of  the  autumn 
crop  (i.e.,  September-October),  are  of  better  quality;  but 
little  of  it  finds  its  way  to  a foreign  market.  When  the 
moths  emerge  from  the  July  cocoons,  towards  the  end  of 
that  month  or  beginning  of  August,  the  females,  after  copu- 
lation, are  tied  to  the  oak  bushes  by  threads  attached  to 
their  wings,  and  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  leaves.  After  a few 
days  the  worms  hatch,  and  at  once  find  their  own  food,  re- 
quiring no  further  attention  than  the  warding  off  of  birds  and 
other  enemies.  It  is  a curious  fact  that  the  moths  emerge  from 
the  cocoons  without  severing  a single  filament,  for  the  softening 
of  the  head-ends  of  the  cocoons  by  the  liquid  which  they  eject 
from  their  mouths  enables  them  to  push  aside  the  filaments  on 
their  way  out ; but  the  cocoons  themselves  are  so  disarranged 
and  constricted  by  the  pressure  that  it  is  impossible  to  reel  them 
in  the  ordinary  way.  These,  with  the  envelopes  surrounding 
the  cocoons,  constitute  what  is  known  as  silk  waste,  largely 
employed,  principally  in  England,  for  making  imitation  seal- 
skin plushes.  This  wild  silk  is  known  as  Tussah , from  the 
Chinese  words  Tu  Ssu  (local  silk). 

The  chief  centres  of  the  silk  trade  in  Feng-Cien  are  the  cities 
of  Hai-ch^ng,  Hsiu-yen  and  Kai-p’ing,  and  in  1896 1 7,578 
cwt.  of  raw  silk  and  2,704  cwt.  of  waste  were  exported  from 
Newchwang  by  steamer.  This  by  no  means  represents  the  total 
production,  for  much  goes  by  junk  from  the  numerous  ports  in 
the  south  of  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula  not  open  to  foreign  trade, 


1 For  subsequent  years  see  Chapter  X. 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


203 


whence  it  is  carried  to  the  Shan-tung  province  for  sale,  as  well 
as  for  manufacture  into  pongees. 

Owing  to  the  greater  weight  of  Antheraea  Pernyi  the 
cocoons  are  much  heavier  than  those  of  Bombyx  Mori,  and  they 
contain  less  silk,  so  that  while  four  to  five  pounds  of  the  latter 
will  yield  about  one  pound  of  raw  silk,  fourteen  to  sixteen 
pounds  of  the  former  are  required  to  yield  a like  quantity.  The 
following  may  be  taken  as  the  average  weights  of  one  thousand 
fresh  live  cocoons  of  mulberry  and  oak-fed  worms  : — 

Mulberry  (Bombyx  Mori)  . . Kilo.  1870. 

Oak  (Antheraea  Pernyi)  . . „ 7‘071. 

The  silk  as  reeled  by  the  native  method  has  a dark  gold  or 
copper  colour  without  much  lustre ; but  when  treated  by  the 
western  system  I have  seen  it  almost  white  and  very  glossy.  It 
has  been  stated  that  a naturally  black  silk  is  produced  in  some 
parts  of  Feng-Fien,  and  the  colour  is  attributed  to  the  worm 
eating  not  only  the  leaves  but  also  their  ribs  and  veins.  This, 
however,  is  in  all  probability  due  to  diseased  worms,  and  cannot 
be  considered  a natural  product. 

The  average  price  per  picul  (133^  lb.)  is  about  Haikwan 
taels  150  (say,  P25).  In  former  years  it  has  been  bought  for 
Haikwan  taels  80  a picul ; but  latterly  it  has  been  in  great 
demand,  and  the  price  has  been  as  high  as  Haikwan  taels  200. 
The  increasing  value  cannot  fail  to  stimulate  production,  which 
is  capable  of  great  development  in  a country  where  the  conditions 
are  nearly  perfect. 

Next  in  importance  to  silk  are  furs,  which  are  derived  from 
a variety  of  animals,  including  the  bear,  cat,  dog,  fox,  goat, 
hare,  leopard,  otter,  sable,  sheep,  squirrel,  tiger,  weasel  and  wolf. 
The  mountains  and  forests  of  Manchuria,  especially  the  Ch’ang- 
pai-shan  and  Hsing-an  ranges,  in  the  Kirin  and  Hei-lung-chiang 
provinces  respectively,  are  tenanted  by  bears,  leopards,  sables, 


204 


MANCHURIA 


squirrels  and  tigers,  and  the  hunters,  who  dwell  in  huts  on  the 
mountain  valleys,  are  nominally  under  the  jurisdiction  of  an 
official  superintendent.  In  the  Hei-lung-chiang  province,  how- 
ever, they  are  more  under  Government  control,  and  have  to  pay 
through  their  superintendent,  who  resides  at  Tsi-tsi-har  (Pu- 
k’uei),  tribute  of  animals  and  furs  once  a year  to  the  Emperor. 
These  animals  are  usually  trapped,  and  the  following  description 
of  a sable  trap  is  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  H.  E.  Fulford,  who 
visited  the  Ch'ang-pai-shan  in  1886 : “ The  trap  consists  of  a 
log  of  wood  placed  on  the  trunk  of  a fallen  tree,  and  propped 
up  at  one  end  by  a catch,  which  is  released  when  the  sable  runs 
underneath,  and  the  log  pins  him  to  the  tree.  A sort  of  run 
is  made  by  pieces  of  wood  driven  into  the  tree  in  two  parallel 
rows,  between  which  the  sable  is  obliged  to  run  in  going  along 
the  trunk.  Two  bits  of  bark  are  laid  between  these  pegs,  and 
the  pressure  of  the  animal  on  them  makes  the  catch  fly.  Squirrels 
have  also  the  habit  of  running  along  the  trunks  of  fallen  trees, 
and  are  caught  by  the  same  traps.”  Tigers,  again,  are  caught 
in  traps  consisting  of  large  wooden  cages  wherein  pigs  are 
usually  tied  up  as  bait.  Bears  are  as  a rule  shot.  The  skins, 
which  owing  to  the  severe  winter  climate  are  frozen  hard,  are 
taken  to  Kirin  and  Moukden  to  be  cleaned  before  the  thaw  sets 
in  in  spring.  Another  great  centre  for  cleaning  furs  is  the  city 
of  Chin-Chou  Fu,  in  the  south-west  of  the  Feng-t’ien  province, 
but  the  furriers  of  Moukden  are  declared  to  possess  the  greater 
skill,  the  skins  prepared  there  being  free  from  smell.  In  the 
Customs  Returns  of  Newchwang  for  1896 1 prepared  sable  skins 
are  quoted  at  seven  Haikwan  taels  a piece,  about  23s.  4d. ; 
leopard  skins  at  eight  taels  each,  the  price  paid  for  the  best 
tiger  skins  at  Newchwang  when  that  port  was  opened  to  trade 
in  1861,  and  tiger  skins  at  thirty-five  taels,  nearly  £6  sterling. 


1 For  subsequent  years  see  Chapter  X. 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


205 


But  large  and  well  marked  tiger  skins  fetch  very  high  prices, 
£15  being  by  no  means  uncommon.  The  Manchurian,  how- 
ever, is  much  finer  than  the  Indian  tiger  skin. 

By  far  the  most  important  branch  of  the  skin  and  fur  trade 
of  Manchuria  consists  of  the  skins  of  the  domesticated  animals, 
the  dog  and  the  goat.  Many  thousands  of  these  skins  are 
annually  exported  from  Newchwang  and  Tientsin,  and  ultimately 
find  their  way  principally  to  the  United  States,  and  the  following 
interesting  note  on  this  subject  is  taken  from  the  British 
Consular  Report  on  the  trade  of  Newchwang  for  the  year  1887  : 
64  It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  animals,  wild  or  tame,  are 
picked  up  wherever  they  may  be  found  straying,  destroyed, 
and  the  skins  sold  to  dealers,  who  make  them  up  into  mats, 
robes,  etc.  This  idea  is  erroneous,  careful  inquiry  having 
established  the  fact  that  the  business  is  now  conducted  after 
the  manner  of  sheep  farming  in  Australia,  though  it  probably 
began  in  a small,  vagrant  kind  of  way.  There  are  thousands 
of  small  dog  and  goat  farms  scattered  over  the  northern  districts 
of  Manchuria  and  Mongolia,  where  from  ten  to  hundreds  of 
animals  are  reared  yearly.  When  a girl  is  married  she  receives 
perhaps  six  dogs  as  her  dowry,  and  it  can  easily  be  understood 
that  this  comparatively  small  beginning  may  be  the  foundation 
of  a large  fortune,  seeing  that  the  reproduction  of  ten  per 
annum  would  in  a few  years  give  an  enormous  total.  A dog 
matures  in  from  six  to  eight  months,  and  the  fur  is  at  its  best 
during  winter,  so  that  the  animal  must  be  destroyed  before  the 
thaw  sets  in.  Nature  has  provided  a magnificent  protection 
to  withstand  the  cold  of  these  northern  latitudes,  where  the 
thermometer  (Fahrenheit)  goes  down  to  25°  below  zero,  i.e ., 
57°  of  frost,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  the  dog  skins  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world  are  to  be  compared  with  those  that  come 
from  Manchuria  or  Mongolia,  either  in  size,  length  of  hair 
or  quality.  The  question  of  food  for  so  many  animals  naturally 


206 


MANCHURIA 


presents  itself.  If  they  had  to  be  kept  entirely  by  their 
masters  the  industry  could  not  be  a paying  one.  The  coarsest 
grain — millet  that  is  not  good  enough  for  horses — mixed  with 
the  ordure  and  rubbish  of  the  farm,  is  always  ready  for  them 
when  by  foraging  outside  they  are  unable  to  satisfy  the  pangs 
of  hunger.  Water  is  always  ready  at  the  farm,  which  can- 
not be  procured  elsewhere  during  the  winter;  and  so,  without 
counting  the  well-known  fidelity  of  the  dog  towards  its  master, 
there  are  sufficient  inducements  for  the  animal  to  stick  to  the 
place  where  it  has  been  bred.”  In  another  part  of  the  same 
report  Mr.  Holland,  the  writer,  says : “ The  flesh,  even  of  the 
dogs,  is  no  doubt  used  for  human  food,  and  the  market  value 
thereof  enters  largely  into  the  farm’s  profit  and  loss  account. 
The  animals  are  fit,  before  spring  sets  in,  whilst  their  coats  are 
long  and  warm,  to  be  killed,  which  is  effected  not  by  knife, 
which  might  injure  the  fur,  but  by  strangulation.  The  skins 
dried  and  frozen  find  a market  at  Moukden  and  other  places, 
where  they  are  cured  before  the  thaw  affects  them,  priced, 
assorted,  and  made  into  mats  and  robes.”  The  information 
which  I have  been  able  to  collect  on  this  subject  agrees  in  the 
main  with  the  above  description,  and  does  not,  I regret  to  say, 
detract  from  the  barbarous  treatment  of  these  dumb  animals. 
In  1896,  40,723  dog-skin  mats  and  28,744  dog-skin  rugs,  of 
the  value  of  Haikwan  taels  28,372  and  25,931  respectively, 
and  9,442  goat-skin  mats  and  8,297  goat-skin  rugs,  of  a total 
value  of  Haikwan  taels  12,007,  and  101,553  raw  goat  skins, 
worth  Haikwan  taels  12,396,  were  exported  from  Newchwang 
by  steamer.  Squirrel  and  weasel  skins  also  leave  Manchuria 
in  large  numbers : as  many  as  53,714  of  the  latter  were  reported 
at  the  Foreign  Custom  House  in  1896.  Nor  does  the  wily 
reynard  escape  with  his  brush,  for  11,728  fox  tails  appear  in 
the  export  returns  of  the  same  year.  Bear  and  excellent  wolf 
skins,  the  latter  from  the  Hei-lung-chiang  province,  are  always 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


207 


in  the  market,  but  they  are  not  in  great  demand  as  articles 
of  export.  In  addition  to  these  the  land-otter  supplies  valuable 
skins,  and  the  skins  of  the  wild  cat  and  hare  afford  warm 
clothing  to  the  poorer  classes.  Sheepskins,  mostly  from  Mon- 
golia, are  to  be  met  with  everywhere  in  winter,  and  the  local 
demand  is  very  great.  They  are  exported  in  large  quantities 
from  Tientsin,  which  is  the  chief  outlet  for  Mongolian  produce. 

The  great  fertility  of  the  soil  of  Northern  Manchuria  and 
Eastern  Mongolia  enables  the  cultivator  to  produce  enormous 
crops  of  grain  and  pulse ; but  the  distance  which  separates  these 
fertile  tracts  from  the  populous  centres  of  consumption  further 
south  is  the  great  barrier  to  the  profitable  disposal  of  food 
products.  The  long  and  expensive  transport  of  grain  by  cart 
in  winter — the  only  season  in  which  the  roads  in  the  interior  are 
fit  for  traffic — precludes  successful  competition,  and  the  result  is 
that  large  quantities  of  millet  are  disposed  of  for  the  manufacture 
of  spirits  at  the  numerous  distilleries  which  are  scattered  about 
the  centres  of  production.  Here,  however,  I am  concerned  only 
with  the  refuse  of  these  distilleries,  which  is  utilised  for  the 
feeding  and  fattening  of  enormous  herds  of  pigs.  These  animals, 
which  attain  huge  proportions,  are,  so  far  as  I have  observed, 
uniformly  black.  They  are  either  killed  in  winter,  dressed  and 
brought  down  in  a frozen  state  by  cart,  or  walked  overland  in 
herds  to  Moukden  and  other  populous  cities  for  sale  and  con- 
sumption. But  it  is  the  bristles  of  these  pigs  which  concern 
foreign  trade,  and  I am  convinced  that  this  branch  is  capable  of 
great  development.  In  1896 1 74 J tons  were  exported  by  steamer 
from  Newchwang,  of  an  average  value  of  Is.  3d.  per  lb.,  but  a far 
greater  quantity  finds  its  way  through  Tientsin.  So,  too,  with 
regard  to  horse  hair  (manes  and  tails).  Notwithstanding  the 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  horses,  mules  and  donkeys  engaged  in 


1 See  Chapter  X. 


208 


MANCHURIA 


the  carting  trade  of  Manchuria,  only  twenty  tons  of  hair  were 
passed  through  the  Newchwang  Custom  House  in  1896,  against 
364  tons  from  Tientsin.  And  this  small  quantity  does  not 
surprise  me,  for  although  I have  journeyed  into  the  centre  of 
Manchuria  I never  once  observed  cart  animals  being  groomed, 
and  it  may  be  that  this  hair  is  derived  from  such  as  have 
succumbed  to  age  or  to  overwork.  I should  have  mentioned 
above  that  pig’s  hair  is  mostly  utilised  for  manure,  and  it  is  said 
to  be  specially  valuable  in  the  case  of  indigo. 

Felt  of  various  kinds  and  qualities  is  largely  manufactured 
in  Manchuria,  the  chief  centres  of  the  industry  being  K’uan- 
ch'eng-tzu  in  Kirin,  and  Moukden  and  Chin-chou  Fu  in  Feng- 
t’ien.  Common  or  brown  felt  is  made  from  ox-hair.  The  hair 
having  been  first  washed  and  dried  is  sprinkled  evenly  by  hand 
on  a mould  or  screen  of  bamboo  of  the  required  length  and 
w idth,  the  amount  of  hair  depending  on  the  desired  thickness  of 
the  felt,  and  the  screen  is  then  rolled  up  tightly  with  the  hair 
inside.  The  mould  is  rolled  backwards  under  pressure  by  hand 
or  foot  for  a couple  of  hours,  water  being  added  from  time  to 
time  to  soften  the  contents  and  hasten  the  attachment  of  the 
hair,  when  the  mould  is  unrolled  and  the  piece  of  wret  felt 
placed  in  the  sun  to  dry.  This  is  coarse  felt,  mostly  used  for 
carpets  and  bed  mats.  It  possesses  little  strength  and  has  to 
be  swept,  when  it  is  swept,  very  lightly,  for  the  hair  readily 
peels  off  with  the  least  pressure.  For  the  finer  felt  sheep's  wool 
is  used,  and  the  shorter  hairs  which  rise  to  the  surface  of  the 
water  when  the  wool  is  being  washed  are  usually  utilised  for  the 
purpose.  It  is  strong  and  tough,  and  principally  made  up  into 
caps  and  the  uppers  of  winter  shoes,  and  it  can  be  readily  dyed. 
Many  thousands  of  pieces  of  felt  are  annually  exported  by 
steamer  from  Tientsin  and  Newchwang. 

Excellent  carpets  and  rugs  of  heavy  pile  and  of  any  required 
shape,  pattern  or  colour  are  manufactured  by  hand  from  camel 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


209 


and  sheep’s  wool  imported  into  Manchuria  from  Mongolia.  The 
twine  used  to  bind  the  wool  together  is  made  of  common  hemp. 
The  great  centre  of  manufacture  is  Chin-chou  Fu,  whence 
carpets  and  rugs  are  conveyed,  for  export,  to  Tientsin,  where  this 
industry  is  also  carried  on.  There  is  a considerable  demand 
amongst  foreigners  for  these  manufactures,  but  unfortunately  in 
damp  climates  they  are  liable  to  emit  a disagreeable  smell. 

I have  already  referred  to  the  trapping  of  the  tiger  for  his 
valuable  skin,  but  that  is  not  the  only  part  of  the  animal 
to  which  the  hunter  gives  his  attention.  The  bones  find 
an  honoured  place  in  the  Chinese  pharmacopoeia,  and  in  the 
Customs  Returns  of  Newchwang  for  1896  tigers’  bones,  weighing 
3,600  lb.,  and  valued  at  Is.  3d.  per  lb.,  appear  as  an  export. 
The  deer,  too,  is  hunted  for  his  horns  and  sinews,  both  of  which 
are  utilised  as  medicines.  Pits,  ten  to  twelve  feet  deep,  are  dug 
in  early  summer  in  the  forest  tracks  and  carefully  covered  with 
leaves  and  twigs,  for  it  is  then  that  the  horns  are  44  in  the 
velvet”  and  realise  a high  price.  As  many  as  1,644  pairs  of 
young  horns  were  exported  by  steamer  from  Newchwang  in 
1896,  and  they  were  valued  at  Haikwan  taels  45,600,  or  an 
average  of  £5  a pair,  but  good  specimens  will  often  bring  in  as 
much  as  F30  to  df?40.  The  old  horns,  which  are  of  little  value, 
are  usually  boiled  down  to  make  medicinal  glue. 

The  musk  deer  is  also  found  and  hunted  in  Manchuria, 
especially  in  the  forests  of  Kirin,  and  the  musk  is  exported  both 
through  Newchwang  and  Tientsin.  The  pods  which  arrive  at 
the  former  port  vary  very  much  in  size ; while  ten  large  ones  go 
to  a catty  (1J  lb.),  as  many  as  thirty  of  the  smaller  pods  are 
required  to  make  up  that  weight.  It  ranges  in  price  from  forty 
to  fifty  taels  a catty.  Only  sixty-five  catties  were  exported  by 
steamer  from  Newchwang  in  1896.  I am  told  that  much  of  the 
exported  article  is  adulterated,  and  it  seems  highly  probable,  for 

I notice  that  the  musk  exported  from  Thibet  by  way  of  Ya-tung 
14 


210 


MANCHURIA 


and  India  is  about  eight  times  as  expensive  as  the  Manchurian 
article. 

The  hides  of  ponies  and  mules  are  dressed  and  manufactured 
into  saddlery  and  cart  gear  generally.  The  hide  of  the  ass  is 
more  valuable  ; it  is  dressed,  coloured  and  cut  into  narrow  strips 
of  leather  an  inch  wide  and  eighteen  inches  long,  which  are 
exported,  and  used  for  binding  the  uppers,  toes  and  heels  of 
Chinese  shoes.  In  this  form  it  is  very  expensive,  and  is  valued 
in  the  Customs  Returns  at  over  a picul  (133 } lb.).  Ox 
hides  are  dressed  and  tanned,  and  the  principal  use  to  which 
the  leather  is  put  is  the  manufacture  of  the  Manchurian  shoe 
universally  worn,  stuffed  with  wu-la  grass,  by  the  working 
classes  throughout  Manchuria  in  winter.  The  uppers  and  sole 
of  this  shoe  are  one  piece  of  leather  bent  into  the  shape  of  a 
foot,  with  a high  tongue  attached  to  the  uppers  to  keep  out 
snow.  This  wu-la  grass  ( ts'ao ) grows  in  the  marshy  lands  of 
Manchuria,  especially  in  the  Kirin  province,  to  a height  of  two 
to  three  feet,  when  it  is  cut  down,  made  into  bundles,  and  beaten 
by  mallet  until  it  is  soft  enough  to  be  used  for  padding.  Ass 
and  ox  hides  are  also  boiled  down  to  make  glue,  but  the  pro- 
duct from  the  ass,  although  called  glue,  is  in  reality  a medicine 
called  A-chiao,  so  named  from  Tung-a  Hsien,  in  the  Shantung 
province,  where  there  is  a well  celebrated  for  the  excellence  of 
its  water  and  of  the  herbage  which  surrounds  its  mouth.  The 
term  A-chiao  was  originally  applied  to  the  glue  derived  from 
the  hides  of  donkeys  which  browsed  on  this  herbage  and  drank 
the  water  of  this  well,  but  it  is  now  applied  to  ass-hide  glue 
throughout  the  whole  of  China.  The  A-chiao  of  Moukden  is 
famous. 

There  is  another  animal,  a native  of  the  province  of  Hei- 
lung-chiang,  whose  skin  is  highly  valued  for  clothing  in  these 
cold  northern  regions.  It  is  called  Han-tan -han,  and,  although 
the  skins  are  brought  to  Kirin  from  Tsi-tsi-har  in  considerable 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


211 


quantities,  I have  failed  to  obtain  even  a description  of  the 
animal.  It  is  supposed  to  belong  to  the  deer  family  ; at  any 
rate  the  hair  is  removed  and  the  skin  is  worn  in  the  same  way 
as  chamois  leather  is  sometimes  worn  with  us  in  severe  weather. 
Since  writing  the  above  I have  examined  the  prepared  skin  of 
one  of  these  animals,  and  the  tufts  of  brown  coarse  hair  on  the 
edges  leave  no  doubt  that  it  belongs  to  the  deer  family.  The 
skin  is  much  whiter  and  thicker  than  the  ordinary  chamois 
leather  of  commerce,  and  almost  as  soft.  The  skins  are  large, 
and  the  one  I examined  cost  about  taels  ten  (<£1  10s.)  in  Kirin. 

Bees  are  cultivated  in  Manchuria,  the  hives  being  made  of 
pieces  of  the  hollowed-out  trunks  of  trees  about  a yard  long, 
which  are  usually  suspended  on  the  walls  of  houses.  The  hives 
are  filled  up  at  the  ends  with  wood,  a small  opening  being  left 
at  both  ends.  Beeswax  to  the  amount  of  33,467  lb.,  of  the 
value  of  =£1,056,  was  exported  from  Newchwang  by  steamer  in 
1896.  It  is  used  principally  for  coating  pills. 

In  Chapter  I.  I mentioned  that  the  Amur,  Sungari  and 
Ussuri  teem  with  a great  variety  of  fishes,  including  the 
sturgeon,  and  in  the  autumn  with  shoals  of  the  tamara  salmon, 
whose  skins  the  Yii-p’i-ta-tzu  utilise  for  making  clothes.  Trout 
also  abound  in  the  mountain  streams  forming  their  tributaries. 
I made  an  attempt  to  collect  and  forwarded  to  England  speci- 
mens of  fishes,  crustaceans  and  molluscs  found  on  the  seaboard 
near  Newchwang,  and  the  following  list  of  identifications  has 
been  received  by  me  through  a friend  from  Dr.  Gunther  of  the 
British  Museum  : — 


Chinese  Name. 


Identification. 


Pa  Yu  . 

T’ung-lo  Yu 
Hsiao  Ta-pan  Yu 
Ta  Ta-pan  Yu 
Lu  Yu 

Hai-chi  Yu  . 


Cybium  gracile,  Giinth. 

Sciaena  tenlo,  Basil. 
Cynoglossus  gracilis,  Giinth. 

,,  semilaevis,  Giinth. 
Lateolabrax  japonicus,  Schleg. 
Chatoessus  punctatus,  Schleg. 


212 


MANCHURIA 


Huang-hua  Yu  . 
Ta-tou-pao  Yu 
So  Yu  . 

Tao  Yu 
Lien  Yii 
Pan-tou  Yu  . 

Li  Yii  . 

Chiang-pan-tou  Yii 
Pai-ku  Yii  . 
Hui-wang  Yii 
Shan  Yii 
Pai  Yii 
Ko-ya-tzu  Yii 


Chien-tou  Yii 
Yang  Yii  . 

Me-tou  (Cuttlefish) 
Ta-tui-hsia  (Prawn) 
Ching-hsia  (Shrimp) 
Hai-pang-kai  (Sea  Crab) 
Ho-pang-kai  (River  Crab) 
Mien-tiao  Yii  (Whitebait) 


Sciaena  crocea,  Rich. 

Collichthrys  lucida,  yg.  Rich. 

Mugil  so-iuy,  Basil. 

Coilia  nassus,  Schleg. 

Silurus  asotus,  L. 

Globius  hasta,  Schleg. 

Cyprinus  carpio,  L. 
Hypophthalmichthys  molotrix,  C.V. 
Opsariichthys  morrisonii,  sp.  n.,  Giinth. 
Macrones  longirostris,  Giinth. 

Anguilla  bostoniensis,  Les. 

Culter  erythropterus,  Basil. 

Macrones  vachelii. 

Bagrus  (?)  vachelii,  Rich. 

Silurus  calvarius,  Basil. 

Pseudobagrus  vachelii,  Giinth. 
Platycephalus  cultellatus,  Giinth. 
Trygon  sp.  yg. 

Loligo  sp.  yg. 

Penceus  monodon. 

Palaemon  sp. 

Neptunus  pelagicus. 

Platynotus  depressus. 

Harpodon  nehereus,  H.B. 


In  addition  to  the  above  there  is  a species  of  cod  which 
swarms  in  these  northern  waters  during  the  autumn,  and  can 
be  kept  frozen  throughout  the  winter  months  in  Manchuria. 
Two  species  of  oyster — the  small  rock  oyster  and  the  large  sand 
oyster — are  similarly  preserved.  There  is  also  a large  bivalve 
called  Ha-la-pi,  and  known  locally  as  the  66  Butter  Fish,”  which 
would  appear  to  have  been  omitted  from  the  box  of  specimens 
forwarded  to  England. 

The  minerals  of  Manchuria  have  not  yet  been  scientifically 
explored ; but  gold,  iron,  coal  and  soda  are  extensively  worked, 
and  silver,  copper  and  lead  are  known  to  exist.  Gold  is  widely 
distributed  throughout  the  three  provinces  of  Manchuria ; but 
the  richest  deposits  are  found  in  the  far  north,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Amur,  the  dividing  line  of  Manchuria  and  Siberia. 
Indeed,  a fellow-passenger,  a distinguished  mining  engineer, 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS 


213 


informed  me  that  the  conglomerates  which  we  saw  in  several 
places  on  the  banks  of  the  Upper  Amur  are  exactly  the  same 
formation  as  at  Johannesburg.  In  Feng-t’ien  gold  is  known  to 
exist  at  two  places  in  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula,  in  the  east  near 
the  city  of  T’ung-hua  Hsien,  and  a few  miles  to  the  north  of 
Mao-£rh-shan,  between  the  Ya-lu  River  and  the  Ch’ang-pai-shan 
mountains.  In  Kirin  it  is  found  forty  miles  to  the  north-east 
of  Hun-ch’un,  near  the  Russian  frontier,  in  the  bed  of  a tributary 
of  the  Tumen,  still  further  north  in  the  valley  of  the  Sui-fen 
River,  which  flows  into  the  Amur  Bay  on  which  Vladivostock 
stands,  sixty-five  miles  west  by  north  of  Hun-ch’un  in  another 
tributary  of  the  Tumen,  on  the  banks  of  the  Upper  Sungari 
and  its  tributaries,  and  seventy  miles  to  the  east  of  Sansing — a 
town  at  the  junction  of  the  Sungari  and  the  Hurka  or  Mu-tan 
River — near  the  headwaters  of  a river  which  flows  into  the 
Sungari  to  the  north  of  that  town.  In  the  Hei-lung-chiang 
province  I noticed  between  the  mouth  of  the  Sungari  and 
Blagoveschensk,  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Amur,  the  gold- 
mining camps  of  T’ai-p’ing-k’ou,  between  the  Russian  villages  of 
Hingan  and  Pompeevka  on  the  opposite  bank,  and  at  Kuan- 
y in-shan,  opposite  Raddevka.  There  is  another  Chinese  mining 
camp  fifteen  miles  north-west  of  Blagoveschensk,  and  forty  miles 
east  of  the  junction  of  the  Shilka  and  Argun  is  Mo-ho,  the  most 
important  mining  camp  in  Manchuria,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Amur,  about  a mile  above  the  Russian  village  of  Ignashina  or 
Ignatina.  The  mines  themselves  lie  twenty-three  miles  inland. 
Here  rich  deposits  of  gold  are  found  in  the  bed  of  a small 
tributary  of  the  river  which  joins  the  Amur  below  Albazin.  I 
visited  the  camp  at  Mo-ho,  but  the  information  which  I collected 
there  was  very  conflicting.  It  will  be  found  in  another 
chapter.  Gold  is  also  washed  in  the  beds  of  the  Arakan,  which 
joins  the  Argun  thirty-five  miles  south-west  of  its  confluence  with 
the  Shilka,  and  the  Urgi,  a tributary  of  the  Kang,  which  enters 


214 


MANCHURIA 


the  Argun  between  Staro-  and  Novo-Tsuruhaitu.  Gold  is  no 
doubt  found  in  other  parts  of  Manchuria,  but  the  above  are 
the  best  known  centres.  Most  of  the  mines  are  worked  by 
companies  under  Government  superintendence  and  control,  and 
civil  and  military  authorities  and  troops  are  stationed  thereat 
for  their  administration  and  protection  against  armed  robbers, 
who  have  in  the  past  frequently  attacked  the  mines.  I had 
often  heard  that  much  of  the  gold  which  finds  its  way  from 
Manchuria  to  the  port  of  Newchwang  is  of  Siberian  origin,  and 
when  travelling  along  the  frontier  I made  particular  inquiries 
on  this  point.  What  I learned  was  this,  and  I give  it  for  what 
it  is  worth.  I was  told  that  the  Russian  Government  claims  the 
right  to  purchase  all  gold  mined  in  Siberia,  and  that  it  pays  the 
miners  15  to  25  per  cent,  less  than  the  market  value  of  the 
metal.  The  result  is  that  gold  is  smuggled  across  the  Amur 
and  sold  to  Chinese,  who  pay  higher  prices  than  the  Russian 
Government.  As  many  of  the  miners  in  Siberia  are  Chinese, 
there  is  little  difficulty  in  carrying  on  the  contraband  traffic. 
Another  story  I was  told  is  that  some  Chinese  high  officials, 
who  are  shareholders  in  Manchurian  gold  mines,  are  also  pro- 
prietors or  part-proprietors  of  Chinese  banks,  and  that  they  are 
able  so  to  manipulate  the  affairs  of  the  mines  that  the  gold  is 
sold  to  their  banks  much  under  its  real  value.  The  one  story 
is  probably  as  true  as  the  other,  and  there  may  be  some 
connection  between  the  latter  and  the  following  extract  from 
an  Imperial  Decree  published  on  11th  July,  1899 : “As  regards 
the  Mo-ho  gold  mines,  which  have  already  provided  funds  for 
public  use,  the  procedure  has  been  entirely  satisfactory.  The 
amounts  lately  received  have,  however,  been  growing  less  and  less, 
and  orders  must  be  given  for  a thorough  reorganisation  of  the 
mines'1  affairs.”  The  paragraph  which  follows  the  above  extract 
from  the  Imperial  Decree  gives  another  reason  why  the  finances 
of  enterprises  under  Chinese  Government  control  are  never 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS 


215 


reported  as  flourishing  except  at  the  very  outset : “ The  Ch’ien 
An  gold  mine,  lately  opened  in  the  province  of  Chihli,  has  shown 
a profit  in  a remarkably  short  time.  Regulations  for  its  con- 
tribution to  revenue  must  also  be  made  ” ! That  the  precious 
metal  is  found  in  some  abundance  in  the  province  of  F&ig-t’ien 
will  be  seen  from  the  following  extract  from  a letter  written 
by  a correspondent  at  Moukden  to  the  North  China  Herald , 
published  in  Shanghai : “We  have  a small  Klondyke  in  Eastern 
Manchuria.  In  the  spring  of  last  year  some  travellers  were 
seen  in  small  inns  to  the  east  conveying  several  large  bowls 
full  of  rich  red  gold.  These  travellers  became  so  common  that 
curiosity  of  the  most  eager  kind  was  aroused.  They  were 
discovered  to  be  hard-working  farmers  and  farm-labourers  in 
a certain  valley  where  they  had  discovered  the  gold,  and  had 
quietly  dug  away  without  informing  the  authorities.  The  rush 
last  autumn  was  so  great  to  that  particular  place  that  the 
authorities  soon  heard,  and  therefore  sent  men  there  to  keep 
order.  It  is  said  by  spiteful  dwellers  in  the  east  that  far  better 
order  would  be  kept  there  if  no  soldier  appeared.  That,  how- 
ever, did  not  keep  the  soldiers  back.  Some  of  the  more  lucky 
made  as  much  as  twenty  Chinese  ounces  per  day.  It  says  a good 
deal  for  the  wisdom  of  most  of  these  men  that  when  they  had 
a few  days  of  such  work  fhey  quietly  went  away  with  their  spoil 
to  enjoy  it.  During  the  three  last  months  of  the  season  preced- 
ing the  hard  frost  5,000  Chinese  ounces  of  gold  were  reported. 
How  much  disappeared  without  such  report  my  informants 
were  unable  to  say.  Some  Corean  labourers,  who  made  as 
much  as  taels  200  in  a fortnight,  felt  constrained  to  have  a 
jolly  time,  and  when  the  money  was  spent  went  to  work 
again.  This  goldfield,  the  richest  ever  found  in  Manchuria, 
is  on  the  western  slope  of  a low  hill,  whose  acclivity  is 
so  gentle  that  it  is  wholly  cultivated.  A small  stream  ran 
down  its  side,  and  laid  bare  a reddish  yellow  earth  beneath  the 


216 


MANCHURIA 


usually  clay  colour  so  general  in  our  soil  here.  In  this  reddish 
earth  was  the  gold  found.  A bowl  full  of  that  produced  several 
ounces  of  gold.  The  gold  is  of  the  richest  red  variety,  and 
commands  the  highest  price  of  any  gold  in  the  market.  Excite- 
ment is  great  and  widespread.  Though  the  course  of  that  stream 
was  barely  the  sixth  of  a mile  (half  a li)  there  were  over  2,000 
diggers  at  work.  There  are  twelve  men  to  each  claim : one  to 
superintend,  one  to  cook  and  ten  to  work.  They  share  equally. 
The  claim  is  large  enough  to  admit  two  men,  one  with  a mattock, 
the  other  with  a spade.  But  it  is  rather  tight  work  for  the  two 
to  stand  there  at  one  time.  A great  rush  and  much  trouble  are 
expected  with  the  relaxing  of  the  frost’s  tight  grip.  At  present 
Chinese  are  not  allowed  even  to  go  to  look  into  the  numerous 
pits.  It  appeared  to  me  that  there  was  no  particular  reason 
why  the  rich  deposit  should  be  confined  to  that  small  stream. 
The  same  soil  and  the  same  sub-soil  are  spread  over  a considerable 
area.  In  very  many  other  valleys  I have  seen  or  heard  of  gold- 
finding, but  none  to  compare  with  this  particular  place.  In  the 
others  gold  lies  deep  down  among  gravel ; but  in  this  it  is  in  the 
rich  yellow  earth.  Here  is  a problem.  Such  gold  is  usually 
described  as  having  been  washed  away  from  some  higher  point, 
where  time,  the  season  and  the  rains  tore  it  from  the  grasp  of 
its  parent  rock.  Here  there  is  no  higher  point ; for  the  low 
hills  run  parallel  with  mountains  of  considerable  altitude,  but 
separated  from  them  by  valleys.  The  rock  must,  therefore, 
have  rotted  away  in  $itu,  leaving  the  gold  embedded  in  the 
earth,  into  which  the  rock  became  transformed.  Rotten  quartz 
abounded  to  the  east  of  this  goldfield.  Externally  a lump  of 
quartz  looked  as  quartz  usually  does,  but  when  broken  it  was  in 
almost  every  instance  covered  in  the  fracture  with  a rust-like 
colour.” 

There  are  extensive  coalfields  in  the  Feng-t’ien  province — in 
the  department  of  Liao-yang,  to  the  south  and  south-east  and 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS 


217 


north  and  north-east  of  Moukden — where  excellent  coal  is  mined, 
in  the  centre  and  west  of  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula,  and  in  the 
south-west  and  east  of  the  province  generally.  A much  softer 
coal  is  found  in  the  province  of  Kirin,  near  the  city  of  that  name, 
and  other  mines  have  recently  been  exploited  by  Russian  engineers 
in  search  of  fuel  for  the  use  of  the  coming  Trans-Manchurian 
Railway. 

Iron  is  found  to  the  north  of  the  Liao-yang  coalfields,  more 
especially  within  the  district  of  T’ieh-ling,  forty  miles  north  of 
Moukden.  In  fact  the  presence  of  iron  gives  the  district  its 
name,  T’ieh-ling  meaning  “ Iron  Range  ”.  It  is  also  found  in 
the  east  of  F£ng-t’ien. 

Asbestos  is  met  with  in  the  district  of  Huai-jen,  in  the  east 
of  the  southern  province. 

Soda  is  found  and  worked  in  the  south  of  the  Hei-lung-chiang 
province,  whence  it  is  exported  in  cakes  to  Southern  Manchuria 
and  Northern  China,  where  it  is  largely  used  in  dyeing  establish- 
ments and  to  dissolve  the  gum  of  cocoons  in  silk  reeling. 


CHAPTER  IX 


SPECIAL  INDUSTRIES  OF  MANCHURIA 

jTN  discussing  the  agricultural  and  animal  products  of  Man- 
si'- churia  I have  in  some  cases  touched  lightly,  and  in  others 
fully,  on  the  industries  to  which  they  have  given  rise,  such,  for 
instance,  as  silk,  vermicelli,  indigo,  etc. ; but  there  are  one  or 
two  industries  of  great  commercial  importance,  such  as  bean- 
cake  and  bean-oil,  salt  and  samshu  (, shao-chiu ),  a native  spirit, 
which  deserve  a more  detailed  description,  and  it  is  with  these 
that  I propose  to  deal  in  this  chapter. 

In  Chapter  VII.  I enumerated  the  various  kinds  of  beans 
containing  oil  or  fat,  and  I shall  now  proceed  to  explain  the 
method  adopted  in  Manchuria  for  extracting  the  oil.  A large 
stone  wheel  of  dressed  granite  about  ten  feet  in  diameter  and 
two  and  a half  feet  thick  at  the  axis,  gradually  contracting  to 
a foot  at  the  rim,  which  is  smooth,  revolves  in  a circular  well 
from  thirty  to  thirty-six  inches  broad,  paved  with  stone  and 
bounded  on  each  side  by  a low  wall  of  concrete  or  wood  two  to 
three  feet  high.  The  massive  wooden  axle  on  which  the  wheel 
revolves  has  its  opposite  end  firmly  fixed  in  a huge  beam  which 
rises  vertically  from  the  centre  of  the  hollow  circle  formed  by 
the  inner  wall  of  the  well  and  which  revolves  with  the  wheel. 
Behind  the  wheel  and  supported  by  a plank  fixed  near  the 
opposite  end  of  the  axle  is  a wooden  framework  which  just 
sweeps  the  floor  of  the  well.  The  front  of  this  framework  has 
a metal  share  like  a plough,  and  affixed  to  the  rear  is  a small 

square  of  wood  inclined  to  the  inner  wall  with  a loop  of  rope 

(218) 


SPECIAL  INDUSTRIES 


219 


or  leather  nailed  to  and  projecting  from  it.  The  beans  to  be 
crushed  are  heaped  in  the  well  against  the  inner  wall.  Two 
mules,  blindfolded,  are  harnessed  to  the  wheel,  one  in  front,  the 
other  behind,  and  walk  in  a track  outside  the  outer  wall.  At 
the  first  revolution  nothing  is  crushed ; but  the  loop  at  the  end 
of  the  framework  drags  the  beans  on  to  the  floor  of  the  well 
and  at  the  second  revolution  these  are  crushed  by  the  wheel  and 
swept  towards  the  outer  wall  by^the  share,  making  way  for 
a fresh  supply  of  beans  dragged  on  by  the  loop  arrangement  at 
each  revolution.  In  this  way  the  beans  are  crushed  into  thin 
wafers ; but  this  style  of  wheel  is  now  somewhat  antiquated, 
and  has  been  to  a great  extent  superseded  by  an  improved 
method  of  feeding  and  crushing,  which  I shall  now  describe. 
A massive  stone  roller,  measuring  forty- two  inches  long  with 
a diameter  of  fifty-three  inches,  has  the  centre  of  its  rim  cut 
to  a depth  of  a quarter  to  half  an  inch  and  polished.  The 
breadth  of  the  cutting  is  nineteen  and  a half  inches,  leaving 
a margin  of  dressed  but  not  polished  granite  on  each  side  eleven 
and  a quarter  inches  broad.  On  a circular  platform  edged  with 
polished  granite  eighteen  and  a half  inches  wide,  with  a gutter 
or  hollow  all  round  twenty-three  inches  across — the  whole 
enclosed  by  a low  wall  of  stone  or  wood  the  height  of  the  plat- 
form— this  granite  cylinder  is  placed  so  that  the  polished  centre 
rests  on  the  stone  edging.  It  is  kept  in  position  by  a long 
round  beam  which  rises  from  the  centre  of  the  platform,  wherein 
it  is  firmly  fixed,  and  passes  through  the  centre  of  a stout  plank 
into  the  inner  side  of  which  the  projecting  iron  axle  of  the 
cylinder  fits.  The  iron  axle  on  the  other  side  of  the  cylinder 
fits  into  a similar  plank,  and  these  two  planks  are  bound  together 
at  the  ends,  which  project  some  distance  beyond  the  cylinder,  by 
two  similar  stout  planks.  At  the  point  where  the  beam  passes 
loosely  through  the  inner  plank  both  beam  and  plank  are  bound 
with  iron,  and  the  top  of  the  beam  is  firmly  fixed  to  a beam  in 


220 


MANCHURIA 


the  roof  of  the  house.  Two  mules,  whose  track  lies  outside  the 
low  encircling  wall,  are  harnessed  to  the  projecting  ends  of  the 
planks,  and,  as  they  walk  round,  the  cylinder  and  wooden 
framework  revolve  round  the  centre  beam.  To  the  other  side 
of  the  plank,  through  which  the  centre  beam  passes,  a wooden 
feeder  is  attached.  It  is  four-sided,  about  three  feet  high,  wide 
at  the  mouth  and  contracting  towards  the  bottom,  which  just 
rests  on  the  stone  edging  of  the  platform.  In  the  rear  of  the 
feeder  and  close  to  the  platform  there  is  a small  square  hole, 
the  opening  and  shutting  of  which  is  regulated  by  a wooden 
slide,  and  attached  to  the  rear  and  outer  side  of  the  feeder  is  a 
wooden  hoop  which  prevents  the  beams  from  rolling  from  the 
platform  into  the  gutter.  Behind  the  feeding  hole  a hoop  of 
iron  with  holes  drilled  in  the  lower  edge  is  fixed  for  the  purpose 
of  spreading  the  beans  evenly  on  the  stone  edging  of  the  plat- 
form, and  attached  to  the  front  of  the  feeder  and  grazing  the 
platform  there  is  a narrow  iron  share  arranged  in  a slanting 
direction,  so  that  it  sweeps  all  before  it  into  the  gutter.  Let 
us  suppose  now  that  the  mules  have  been  harnessed  to  the 
planks  projecting  beyond  the  stone  cylinder  or  crusher,  and 
that  the  feeder  is  full  of  beans  and  the  slide  open.  As  the 
mules  walk  round  the  beans  escape  from  the  feeder  and  are 
spread  evenly  on  the  stone  edging  of  the  platform  by  the 
perforated  iron  hoop  or  rake,  and  prevented  from  rolling  into 
the  gutter  by  the  wooden  hoop.  Round  comes  the  cylinder 
and  crushes  the  beans  into  wafers,  which  at  the  next  revolution 
are  swept  from  the  platform  into  the  gutter  by  the  share  in 
front  of  the  feeder.  The  first  process,  that  is,  the  crushing  of 
the  beans,  is  now  complete.  The  bean  wafers  are  then  removed 
from  the  gutter  in  baskets  and  steamed.  A number  of  brick 
furnaces  two  to  two  and  a half  feet  high  are  fitted  on  the  top, 
with  large  open  shallow  circular  iron  pots  more  than  half  full  of 
boiling  water.  A couple  of  inches  below  the  lip  of  each  pot  a 


CHINESE  BEAN  MILL  AT  NEWCHWANG 


SPECIAL  INDUSTRIES 


221 


circular  wooden  grating  is  inserted,  and  over  this  is  spread  a 
square  piece  of  coarse  hempen  cloth.  When  the  water  boils 
the  steam  ascends  through  the  grating  and  cloth,  and  on  the 
latter  a basketful  of  bean  wafers  is  spread  and  steamed  for  a 
quarter  of  an  hour,  when  they  are  sufficiently  soft  to  be 
moulded  into  cake  for  the  oil-press.  I have  weighed  these  bean 
wafers  before  and  after  steaming;  and  found  the  weights  to  be 
54|-  and  60J  catties  respectively.  Two  iron  rods  of  equal  length 
are  placed  parallel  to  each  other  on  the  ground,  and  two  similar 
rods  are  laid  crosswise  and  parallel  on  the  top  to  form  a square 
in  the  centre.  On  these  two  stout  iron  hoops,  twenty-three 
inches  in  diameter  and  two  inches  deep,  are  placed,  and  on  these 
again  a thin  bottomless  wooden  filler  of  like  diameter  and 
eighteen  inches  high  is  adjusted.  Two  bunches  of  grass,  each 
tied  at  the  base  end,  are,  after  being  steamed,  fitted  into  the 
wrooden  filler,  the  tied  ends  downwards,  and  the  loose  ends  are 
spread  fan-shape  over  the  rim  of  the  filler.  Another  thin  piece 
of  v^ood  seven  and  a half  inches  deep  is  then  bent  by  hand  into 
a second  filler — the  edges  overlapping — and  pushed  down  on 
the  top  of  the  grass  inside  the  large  wooden  filler.  The  steamed 
beans  are  now'  earned  from  the  grating  in  the  piece  of  hempen 
sacking,  poured  into  the  inner  filler  and  hammered  dowm,  the 
workman  afterwards  stepping  in  and  pressing  them  hard  with 
both  feet.  While  thus  engaged  he  draws  up  the  inner  filler,  and, 
wdien  the  beans  are  sufficiently  pressed,  he  bends  down,  raises  the 
outer  filler  and  adjusts  the  iron  hoops  an  inch  or  more  apart 
on  the  grass  now  containing  the  beans.  This  done,  he  steps  out, 
removes  both  fillers,  and,  seizing  the  ends  of  the  grass  with  his 
hands,  carefully  arranges  them  towards  the  centre  to  cover  the 
beans.  Two  short  iron  rods  are  now  placed  on  the  top  to  keep  the 
grass  down.  On  the  top  of  this  grass-  vyapped  cake  four  other 
cakes  are  similarly  moulded,  the  short  iron  rods  being  removed 
from  the  top  of  the  cake  below'  as  the  cake  above  is  completed. 


222 


MANCHURIA 


A side  view  now  shows  five  grass-covered  cakes,  one  above  the 
other,  each  bound  with  two  iron  hoops.  They  are  now  ready 
for  the  oil-press.  This  consists  of  four  massive  wooden  pillars, 
some  ten  feet  high,  embedded  in  the  ground,  and  arranged  in 
two  pairs  at  a short  distance  from  each  other,  each  pair  bound 
together  at  the  top  and  forming  an  angle.  A log  of  wood  fixed 
horizontally  in  the  apices  of  the  angles  binds  the  two  pairs 
together.  In  the  floor  between  the  pairs  of  pillars  is  embedded 
a thick,  round  base  of  willow  wood  guttered  all  round,  and  with 
a mouth  leading  to  an  underground  tank  for  the  reception  of 
the  oil.  The  five  cakes  are  dragged  on  to  the  base,  the  short, 
iron  rods  are  removed  from  the  top  cake,  and  three  short  logs — 
the  ends  facing  the  workman — are  laid  on  the  top  of  the  cakes. 
Above  these  are  placed  crosswise  longer  logs  passing  through 
the  two  angles  made  by  the  two  pail's  of  pillars  until  the  space 
between  the  cakes  and  the  cross  log  uniting  the  pillars  is  filled. 
Wooden  wedges,  bound  at  the  thick  end  with  iron,  are  now 
driven  in  between  the  upper  logs  at  each  side  by  the  workman, 
who  wields  with  great  effect  a heavy,  short -handled  iron  hammer 
suspended  at  each  side  from  a cross  beam  erected  above  the 
press.  After  a few  minutes  the  oil  may  be  seen  pouring  from 
the  cakes,  descending  to  the  wooden  base,  and  thence  finding 
its  way  to  the  underground  tank.  From  time  to  time  the 
wredges  are  knocked  out,  another  log  inserted,  and  the  wredges 
again  driven  home.  This  process  goes  on  for  two  hours,  when 
the  extraction  is  complete.  The  cakes  are  then  dragged  from 
the  press  and  the  iron  hoops  and  grass  casings  removed.  Each 
cake  is  now  a solid  mass,  twenty-three  inches  in  diameter  and 
four  inches  thick,  with  a slight  protuberance  all  round  the 
centre  of  the  edge,  caused  by  the  great  pressure  on  the  weak 
part  of  the  cake  between  the  two  iron  hoops.  Each  cake  is 
taken  separately,  and  the  protuberance  pared  off  by  means 
of  a double-handled,  semi-circular  knife.  The  parings  weigh 


SPECIAL  INDUSTRIES 


223 


about  two  catties  and  the  trimmed  cakes  fifty-three  catties  each, 
a total  of  fifty-five  catties  when  removed  from  the  press.  But 
the  steamed  beans  when  inserted  weighed  sixty  and  a half 
catties,  and  the  difference  of  five  and  a half  catties,  or  over 
ten  per  cent,  for  crushed  beans  weighing  fifty-four  and  a half 
catties,  should  represent  the  quantity  of  oil  extracted.  I am 
assured,  however,  that  nine  per  cent.,  as  stated  in  Chapter  VII., 
is  a fair  average.  After  being  trimmed  the  cakes  are  stored  in 
godowns  ready  for  shipment  to  Swatow  and  Amoy,  where  they 
are  macerated  and  applied  to  the  sugar  cane  fields  as  manure. 
Even  in  the  godowns  they  lose  weight,  and  when  they  reach 
their  destination  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that  a cake 
weighs  less  than  fifty  catties.  Beans,  bean-cake  and  bean-oil 
vary  greatly  in  price  from  year  to  year.  In  the  decennary  end- 
ing 1891  the  average  values  were  : Beans,  Newchwang  taels  2*91 
per  picul  of  300  catties  (400  lb.) ; Bean-cake,  N.  taels  3*69 
per  ten  pieces,  and  Bean-oil,  N.  taels  3 43  per  picul  of  100 
catties. 

During  recent  years  the  prices  have  been  higher  ; in  1897 
they  were  N.  taels  4*95,  N.  taels  5*8  and  N.  taels  7’3  respec- 
tively. This  oil  is  used  for  both  cooking  and  lighting,  and  is 
exported  by  steamer  and  junk  to  all  parts  of  China.  Up  the 
Yang-tsze,  however,  and  in  the  southern  provinces,  it  has  rivals 
in  the  so-called  tea-oil  and  ground  nut-oil  manufactured  from 
the  seeds  of  Camellia  sasanqua , Thunb .,  and  Arachis  hypogcea , 
L.,  respectively.  In  1896  a bean-oil  factory  with  foreign 
machinery  manufactured  in  Hong-Kong  was  erected  in  the  port 
of  Newchwang.  The  beans  are  crushed  between  pairs  of  iron 
cylinders  driven  by  steam,  and  the  crushed  bean  wafers,  treated 
as  above  described,  are  placed  in  iron  screw  presses  turned  by 
capstan  bars  by  hand.  With  this  exception  the  process  of 
manufacture  is  the  same  as  in  the  native  mills.  In  the  foreign 
mill  the  oil  is  pumped  from  the  underground  reservoirs  into 


224 


MANCHURIA 


iron  tanks,  where  it  is  stored  before  being  run  into  the  wicker 
waterproof  baskets  for  shipment.  Oil  extracted  in  the  mills 
in  the  far  interior  of  Manchuria  is  packed  in  large  waterproof 
boxes  to  enable  it  to  bear  the  rough  transit  by  cart  to  the  port, 
and  on  arrival  at  Newchwang  the  boxes  are  opened  and  the 
oil  transferred  to  baskets  for  export. 

In  the  low-lying  lands  of  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula,  and 
more  especially  between  the  port  of  Newchwang  and  the  city 
of  Kai-p’ing  Hsien,  where  a number  of  creeks  penetrate  inland 
from  the  sea,  much  of  the  ground  is  given  up  to  the  manufacture 
of  salt  by  sun  evaporation.  Previous  to  visiting  these  salt- 
fields  I was  under  the  impression  that  sea-water  was  simply 
run  on  to  the  fields  and  allowed  to  stand  there  until  the  water 
dried  up  and  left  a deposit  of  salt;  but  I found  on  personal 
examination  that  the  process  is  much  more  elaborate,  and  is 
carried  on  not  without  a certain  amount  of  rude  science. 
Nearest  to  the  creek  or  open  ditch  leading  from  the  creek — 
these  ditches  ramify  all  over  the  saltfields — are  five  large  square 
or  oblong  plots  of  land  (Shui  Chiian)  sunk  in  the  soil,  each 
carefully  dyked  and  capable  of  containing  water  two  to  three 
feet  deep.  Small  openings,  which  can  readily  be  closed  by 
pieces  of  wood,  allow  the  water  to  run  from  the  first  plot  or 
tank  into  which  the  sea-water  is  baled  from  the  creek  or  ditch 
to  the  second,  third,  fourth  and  fifth  tank.  Next  to  these 
tanks  are  eight  similar  but  smaller  tanks  (Lu  Tang),  and  beyond 
six  and  sometimes  eight  similar  but  smaller  tanks  (Yen  Chih), 
in  the  last  of  which  the  salt  ultimately  crystallises.  The  three 
sets  of  tanks  all  communicate  with  each  other  by  means  of 
small  openings  in  the  dykes,  which  can  be  closed  at  will.  In 
the  first  two  sets  of  tanks  the  beds  or  floors  are  flat,  but  in  the 
last  set,  which  are  shallower,  they  rise  gradually  from  edge  to 
centre.  In  the  end  of  autumn  the  beds  of  the  last  set  of  tanks 
(Yen  Chih)  are  beaten  hard  by  wooden  mallets — the  soil  is 


SPECIAL  INDUSTRIES  225 

clay — and  sea-water  is  run  into  them  through  the  other  sets 
of  tanks.  That  is  allowed  to  remain  frozen  over  winter,  and 
in  spring  the  beds  of  the  Shui  Chiian  and  Lu  Tang  are 
levelled  and  beaten  hard.  When  the  water  thaws  in  the  Yen 
Chih  it  is  carried  back  by  a small  drain  to,  and  stored  in,  the 
third  and  fourth  of  the  Lu  Tang  or  middle  set  of  tanks.  This 
water  is  now  called  the  Lao  lu  or  old  brine,  and  the  workmen 
contend  that  crystallisation  is  hastened  by  the  sea- water  passing 
through  it  from  the  Shui  Chiian  on  its  way  to  the  Yen  Chih. 
When  the  old  brine  is  removed  from  the  latter  the  beds  are 
again  hardened.  Everything  is  now  in  order  for  the  manu- 
facture of  the  salt.  The  Shui  Chiian  are  ready  for  the  reception 
of  sea-water  from  the  creek,  the  third  and  fourth  tanks  of  the 
Lu  Tang  are  full  of  Lao  lu  (old  brine),  the  other  six  being 
empty,  and  the  Yen  Chih  are  also  empty.  When  the  Shui 
Chiian  are  full  the  water  at  once  passes  on  to  the  Lu  Tang, 
mingles  with  the  Lao  lu,  and  remains  there  eight  days.  Science 
now  steps  in.  The  headman  has  to  say  when  the  time  has 
arrived  to  allow  the  water  to  pass  through  the  last  Lu  Tang  to 
the  final  set  of  tanks  (Yen  Chih),  i.e .,  to  test  its  specific  gravity. 
This  he  does  by  using  the  egg-shaped  seeds  of  the  lotus.  It  was 
only  after  an  hour’s  cross-questioning — the  Chinese  mind  works 
in  a series  of  curves — that  a headman  produced  from  a small  bag 
hung  round  his  neck  by  a cord  under  his  clothes  four  lotus  seeds 
of  different  colours  and  weights.  They  represented,  according 
to  him,  thirty,  fifty,  eighty  and  a hundred  per  cent.,  and 
when  the  heaviest,  that  is  the  last,  floated  on  the  surface  of  the 
water,  the  time  had  come  to  allow  the  water  to  escape  from  the 
Lu  Tang  into  the  final  set  of  evaporation  tanks  (Yen  Chih). 
Not  all,  however,  for  as  Lao  lu  (old  brine)  must  be  retained  in 
the  Lu  Tang  for  the  next  supply  of  sea-water,  only  one-half  is 
permitted  to  flow  into  the  Yen  Chih.  Much  now  depends  upon 

the  weather.  In  the  hottest  and  brightest  days  of  summer  salt 

15 


226 


MANCHURIA 


crystallises  in  the  final  tank  in  forty-eight  hours ; but  three  to 
four  days  are  usually  required  in  spring  and  autumn.  Ten  to 
fourteen  days,  therefore,  may  be  reckoned  as  the  time  necessary 
to  complete  the  manufacture  from  the  time  the  sea-water  enters 
the  Shui  Chiian  till  the  salt  falls  in  large  crystals  on  the  bed  of 
the  final  tank,  whence  it  is  scooped  up  by  means  of  a wooden 
rake  and  spread  out  to  dry.  When  it  has  been  collected  the 
water  from  the  next  tank  takes  its  place,  and  so  the  process  goes 
on.  The  crystals  are  large — some  clear  as  glass,  others  white 
and  opaque,  while  others  again  are  dingy  and  muddy.  The 
purity  of  the  salt  depends,  in  a great  measure,  on  the  hardness 
of  the  bed  of  the  final  tank.  If  it  is  at  all  soft,  mud  is  scooped 
up  with  and  discolours  the  salt.  On  an  average  five  piculs 
(a  picul  of  salt  weighs  about  600  catties  or  800  lb.)  are  collected 
from  the  final  tank  at  one  time,  and  the  average  production  of 
a set  of  tanks  for  seven  months’  working  amounts  to  300  piculs 
(of  800  lb.  each),  or  107y  tons.  Much,  however,  depends  upon 
the  season  : dull  or  rainy  weather  retards  the  evaporation.  The 
price  of  salt  at  the  works  is  from  12  to  13  tiao  (roughly  speaking, 
6 tiao  are  equal  to  1 Mexican  dollar)  per  picul  (800  lb.),  and 
the  tax  per  picul  of  the  same  quantity  payable  by  the  buyer 
at  the  Salt  Collectorate  Office  near  at  hand  amounts  to  7J  tiao, 
or  more  than  50  per  cent,  ad  valorem.  The  cartage  per  picul 
from  the  place  of  production  to  the  port  of  Newchwang  is 
4 tiao,  bringing  the  price  per  picul  at  the  time  of  shipment 
for  the  interior  of  Manchuria  up  to  24  or  25  tiao,  or  about  $4. 
To  avoid  this  cartage,  boats  which  have  come  down  from  the 
interior  with  beans  frequently  ascend  the  creeks,  load  a little 
salt  and  return  to  the  port  to  fill  up  with  return  cargo.  The 
shallowness  of  the  creeks  prevents  their  taking  full  cargoes  at 
the  works. 

The  production  of  spirit  from  grain  (Millet — Holcus  sorghum , 
L ),  as  carried  on  in  Manchuria,  is  the  same  in  principle  as 


SPECIAL  INDUSTRIES 


227 


elsewhere,  depending  as  it  does  on  the  development  of  grape 
sugar  from  starch  in  the  grain  and  on  the  action  of  a ferment 
on  the  sugar  generating  alcohol,  which  is  separated  by  distillation. 
The  process,  however,  is  vastly  unlike  that  practised  in  the  West. 
The  various  operations  are  not  so  clearly  differentiated,  since, 
with  the  exception  of  distillation  itself,  they  proceed  together  at 
the  same  time,  and  grain  in  different  stages  of  decomposition  is 
mixed  in  the  same  receptacle.  The  Manchurian  method  displays 
considerable  ingenuity  of  a rough  kind,  and  is  evidently  the 
result  of  prolonged  observation  and  gradual  adaptation  of 
means.  It  is,  on  the  whole,  simple  in  appearance,  though 
troublesome  in  operation.  As  in  all  distillation  processes,  even 
where  a great  number  of  men  are  employed,  the  “ making  or 
marring”  of  the  work  is  in  the  hands  of  a few  skilled  workmen, 
whom  long  experience  has  made  expert.  These  men  do  not 
allow  the  inner  practical  secrets  to  pass  from  them  easily,  as  the 
commanding  of  a good  salary  here,  as  elsewhere,  requires  that 
the  supply  does  not  exceed  the  demand,  and  they  are  therefore 
trades  unionists  to  the  extent  of  objecting  to  apprentices.  A 
first-class  distiller  has  an  easy  time,  and,  for  a Chinese,  an  enviable 
salary.  Of  course  these  men  understand  the  process  merely  as 
a practical  one ; no  theoretical  study  or  explanation  is  attempted. 

The  operation  demanding  most  experience  and  skill  is  the 
preparation  of  the  fermenting  agent.  In  all  places  the  com- 
ponents of  the  ferment  are  not  alike,  but,  as  a rule,  three  parts 
of  barley  (Ta  Mai)  to  one  of  peas  (Hsiao  Tou)  are  the  pro- 
portions generally  used.  This  mixture  is  ground  coarsely,  the 
barley  husks  not  being  removed.  To  this  water  is  then  added 
until  the  whole  is  of  the  consistency  of  putty,  when  it  is  pressed 
firm  by  foot  into  wooden  moulds  in  size  and  shape  like  brick 
moulds.  When  firmly  shaped  these  grain  bricks  are  removed 
and  piled  in  a room  just  as  bricks  are  piled  in  a kiln  with 
interstices  for  the  free  passage  of  air,  to  the  height  of  four  or 


228 


MANCHURIA 


five  feet,  6,000  to  10,000  being  made  and  piled  at  one  time. 
Now  it  is  that  the  skill  of  the  expert  is  called  for.  The  room 
is  closed  up,  any  cracks  in  doors  and  windows  being  at  first 
carefully  papered  over  to  exclude  the  air.  Abundance  of  light 
and  heat  comes  through  the  paper  windows,  but  no  air  or 
draught  is  permitted  until  the  correct  temperature  is  reached 
and  the  process  of  fermentation  induced  by  the  heat  of  the 
room  and  the  moisture  and  heat  of  the  grain  bricks  themselves. 
Gradually  a fungoid  growth  forms  on  the  surface,  and  the  skill 
of  the  operator  is  now  required  to  keep  temperature,  moisture, 
etc.,  under  control  until  this  change  has  permeated  the  entire 
substance  of  the  bricks.  He  does  this  by  opening  windows,  by 
using  artificial  heat,  or  by  repiling  the  whole  or  part  of  the 
bricks  as  he  sees  needful.  About  forty  days  are  necessary  to 
perfect  the  ferment.  In  spring  artificial  heat  has  to  be  em- 
ployed, and  in  summer  it  frequently  happens  that  the  tempera- 
ture has  to  be  reduced  by  currents  of  air.  In  winter  the  ferment 
cannot  be  manufactured,  and  provision  is  made  in  the  spring 
and  summer  months  for  a supply  sufficient  to  last  the  whole 
year,  and  there  is  usually  some  old  stock  in  hand  when  the  new 
year’s  is  ready  for  use.  The  ferment  (Ch’li-tzu),  when  properly 
dried,  will  retain  its  active  properties  for  even  five  or  six  years. 
A moderate-sized  distillery  has  in  the  season  several  batches  in 
course  of  preparation  at  different  stages,  each  batch  consisting 
of  from  5,000  to  10,000  bricks,  and  possesses  in  addition  a large 
stock  of  the  perfected  and  dried  material. 

The  preparation  of  the  grain  is  carried  out  in  a curious 
way.  Whereas  by  the  Western  process  germination  is  induced 
by  moist,  and  arrested  by  dry  heat,  in  the  development  of 
grape  sugar  in  Manchuria  the  grain  is  first  crushed  and  after- 
wards moistened.  Then  a quantity  of  the  ferment  is  ground  fine, 
added  to  the  grain  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  it.  The  whole 
is  thereafter  put  into  pits,  tramped  layer  by  layer,  covered  over 


SPECIAL  INDUSTRIES 


229 


with  chaff,  and  a layer  of  moist  clay — the  red  clay  of  Manchuria 
is  very  tenacious — spread  over  all.  The  latter  forms  an  air- 
proof cover,  beneath  which  all  the  chemical  changes  in  the  grain 
antecedent  to  distillation  simultaneously  proceed,  great  heat 
being  developed.  For  eighteen  days  the  contents  of  the  pits 
are  daily  tramped  “ home,”  to  keep  the  grain  in  close  contact 
with  the  ferment.  At  the  end  of  this  period  the  grain  on  being 
removed  is  partially  decomposed,  has  a sweet,  spiritous  taste, 
and  is  ready  for  the  first  distillation.  I should  have  mentioned 
that  from  time  to  time  an  opening  is  made  in  the  clay  covering, 
and  an  iron  bar  thrust  in  several  places  down  to  the  bottom  of 
the  steep  pit.  (By  analogy  it  may  be  so  termed,  though  the  grain 
is  only  moist.)  This  has  a twofold  object.  The  operator  can 
ascertain  the  stage  of  decomposition  by  sense  of  smell,  which  is 
spiritous  as  the  time  for  distillation  draws  near,  and  the  gas 
developed  in  the  meantime  is  allowed  to  escape.  The  fact  that 
an  unskilled  hand,  if  attempting  to  test  too  closely  the  state  of 
the  grain  by  smell,  may  collapse  from  the  effect  of  the  gas 
escaping  shows  that  poisonous  carbonic  acid  gas  is  developed 
here  just  as  in  the  Western  method  of  manufacture. 

The  above  is  a brief  statement  for  the  sake  of  clearness; 
but,  in  practice,  the  process  is  somewhat  more  complicated,  as 
the  grain  is  successively  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  ferment 
and  distilled  five  times  before  it  is  regarded  as  refuse  and  dis- 
carded in  the  shape  of  “ grains  r>.  Evidently  experience  has 
shown  that  only  a surface  action  takes  place  in  each  successive 
operation,  that  the  grain  is  only  partially  acted  on  by  the 
ferment  each  time,  and  it  is  never — unless  when  a distillery 
is  first  opened — subjected  continuously  to  the  action  of  ferment 
for  more  than  nine  or  ten  days  at  a time.  In  practice,  then, 
the  process  is  somewhat  as  follows : In  connection  with  each 

still  in  a distillery  there  is  a series  of  about  twenty-five  pits 
some  ten  feet  deep,  seven  long  and  two  and  a half  broad,  the 


230 


MANCHURIA 


contents  of  which  are  emptied  and  distilled  in  rotation,  two 
or  thereabouts  being  emptied  daily,  as  the  whole  series  is  gone 
through  in  nine  or  ten  days.  As  the  pits  are  closely  connected 
in  pairs,  and  are  always  worked  together,  it  will  be  more 
convenient  for  the  sake  of  description  to  take  the  operations 
conducted  with  one  pair. 

The  accompanying  diagram  represents  a vertical  section  of 
a pair  of  pits  (A  and  B)  in  which  grain  (millet)  is  stored. 


A B 


Part  of  this  grain  has  gone  through  the  still  once  for  simple 
steaming,  part  twice,  etc.,  up  to  four  times.  The  grain  is 
packed  in  layers  which  differ  in  colour,  each  distillation  leaving 
them  darker  than  the  preceding. 

The  three  layers  stored  in  A are  placed  on  the  floor,  and  to 
each  layer  fourteen  bushels  of  raw  grain  are  added.  Each  layer 
with  the  added  grain  is  then  put  into  the  still  and  subjected  to 
the  same  treatment  in  every  way ; but  in  the  case  of  this  raw 
grain  the  idea  is  to  render  it  more  amenable  to  the  action  of 
the  ferment  afterwards.  The  three  layers  are  kept  distinct,  as 


SPECIAL  INDUSTRIES 


231 


each  contains  sufficient,  with  the  added  grain,  to  fill  the  still. 
To  make  the  subject  clearer,  I shall  take  as  an  example  the 
layer  marked  1 in  pit  A.  This  upper  layer  always  contains  a 
larger  proportion  of  grain  as  yet  undecomposed.  It  is  spread 
on  the  floor,  has  fourteen  bushels  (about  560  lb.)  of  raw  broken 
grain  added,  and  is  then  placed  in  the  still  and  steamed.  Any 
ripe  grain  gives  out  its  spirit,  and  the  raw  grain  has  its  tissues 
softened.  When  the  alcohol  present  has  come  over — which 
occupies  less  than  two  hours — the  grain  is  turned  out  on  the 
floor  and  thoroughly  cooled  by  being  pitched  by  shovels  high 
into  the  air,  striking  the  roof  and  falling  at  a distance  in 
separate  grains.  Fifty  to  seventy  pounds  of  the  ferment  are 
now  added  to  the  cooled  grain  and  thoroughly  incorporated 
with  it,  and  the  whole  is  again  packed  as  a layer  in  a pit, 
whence,  after  nine  days  or  so,  it  is  brought  out  to  undergo 
the  same  series  of  operations.  So  with  layer  2 in  pit  A.  Now 
these  two  layers  (1  and  2 in  pit  A)  with  their  added  grain  (raw) 
completely  fill  a new  pit,  and  in  the  next  operation  they  will 
be  subdivided  and  worked,  on  the  expiry  of  another  nine  days, 
as  three.  The  lowest  layer  (3  in  pit  A)  has  also  grain  added, 
but,  after  distillation,  it  is  placed  in  the  new  B pit.  The  upper 
layer  (4)  in  pit  B has  no  grain  added : it  has  already  been  acted 
on  (in  part  at  least)  three  times,  and  it  forms,  after  distillation, 
the  lower  layer  (5)  of  the  new  B pit.  It  is  the  oldest  of  the 
new  series  of  layers  in  the  two  new  pits  now  made  ready  for 
distillation  after  another  nine  days.  The  lower  layer  (5)  in  B 
pit  has  already  been  distilled  (in  greater  part)  four  times,  and 
after  another  distillation  it  is  regarded  as  refuse.  It  should 
be  remarked  that  as  it  contains  much  raw  grain  the  quantity 
of  spirit  from  layer  1 in  pit  A is  small  and  the  quality  poor. 
Layers  3 and  4 contain  most  and  the  best  liquor,  while  layer  5 
is  again  poor  in  yield  and  decidedly  bad  in  quality,  probably 
containing  with  the  product  of  layer  1 much  fusel  oil. 


232 


MANCHURIA 


In  some  parts  of  the  country  where  millet  is  cheap  and 
labour  dear  the  grain  is  not  subjected  to  distillation  five  times. 
It  is  rejected  as  valueless  after  the  fourth,  and  in  this  case, 
therefore,  no  raw  grain  is  added  to  any  but  the  first  two  layers. 
What  has  been  distilled  twice  will  not  have  any  grain  added,  as 
its  contents  could  not  be  exhausted  in  time. 

For  the  market  the  products  of  the  successive  stillings  are 
mixed  together,  but  there  are  always  ways  and  means  of  procur- 
ing the  best  stillings  if  required.  The  quantity  of  spirit  yielded 
by  one  stilling,  in  which  42  bushels  (1  bushel  equal  to  40  lb.) 
of  millet  are  used,  is  at  best  800  lb. ; but  it  very  often  falls 
far  short  of  that  amount. 

I should  mention  that  the  work  of  distillation  goes  on  con- 
tinuously night  and  day,  and  that  the  men  divide  their  work 
into  alternate  batches,  each  gang  taking  complete  charge  of  one 
stilling. 

I come  now  to  the  apparatus  and  the  process  of  distillation 
itself,  and  the  accompanying  diagram  of  a section  of  a still  will 
enable  the  reader  to  follow  with  greater  intelligibility  the  verbal 
description. 

When  distillation  is  about  to  proceed,  the  iron  pot,  which 
is  some  six  feet  in  diameter  and  three  to  four  feet  deep,  is 
three-quarters  filled  with  water,  leaving  a space  of  about  twelve 
inches  between  the  surface  of  the  water  and  the  screen  marked 
X.  The  wooden  tub,  which  is  fitted  into  the  mouth  of  the  pot 
and  rests  on  the  screen,  is  filled  with  grain  (millet)  prepared  as 
above  described,  the  lid  with  the  opening  at  the  top  is  placed 
tightly  on  the  tub,  and  the  condenser  is  adjusted  so  as  to  rest 
in  the  leaden  drain  or  gutter  which  runs  round  the  opening. 
The  condenser  is  then  filled  with  cold  water,  a plug  having 
been  previously  inserted  in  the  mouth  of  the  overflow  pipe  to 
prevent  its  escape.  Millet  stalks  are  now  thrust  down  the 
“ feed-hole  ” (FH)  and  fired,  and  so  quickly  do  they  burn  that 


SPECIAL  INDUSTRIES 


23a 


Section  of  Still. 


P 

WT 

W 

S 

G 

X 


stands 

99 


99 

99 

n 


WL 

Q 


R 

c 

OP 

H 

FH 

A 

F 

Z 

MSF 


91 


9t 

ft 

>> 


99 

99 

99 


for  Iron  pot. 

„ Large  wooden  tub  fitting  tightly  into  top  of  the  pot. 

„ Water. 

„ Steam. 

„ Grain  (millet). 

„ Screen,  between  steam  and  grain,  on  which  the  grain  rests. 
It  consists  of  iron  or  wooden  bars,  with  a sieve  on  the  top 
roughly  made  of  millet  stalks,  and  fits  into  pot  a little 
under  its  mouth. 

„ Wooden  lid  or  cover  of  tub,  open  at  top. 

„ Channel  or  drain  (of  lead)  running  round  the  opening  at  the 
top  of,  and  fixed  to,  the  wooden  lid. 

„ Leaden  tube  fixed  in  channel  Q for  carrying  the  distilled  spirit 
to  the  receiver. 

„ Receiver,  an  earthenware  jar. 

„ Leaden  condenser  with  curved  bottom  fitting  into  the  channel  Q. 

„ Overflow  pipe  for  the  escape  of  heated  water  from  the  condenser. 

„ Handle  of  condenser. 

„ Furnace  or  feed-hole  for  fuel. 

,,  Ash  pan  or  pit. 

„ Flue. 

„ Draught  aperture. 

,,  Millet  stalk  fence  or  brick  wall  built  to  direct  draught  to  Z. 


234 


MANCHURIA 


the  stoking  has  to  be  constantly  kept  up.  When  the  water 
boils  the  steam  passes  up  through  the  spirit-laden  grain, 
vaporising  and  carrying  with  it  the  spirit  present  to  the  curved 
bottom  of  the  condenser,  whence  the  condensed  liquid  trickles 
into  the  leaden  gutter,  and  thence  through  the  tube  (T)  to  the 
receiver  (R).  When  the  apparatus  is  in  full  working  order 
there  is  a constant  flow  of  samshu  (shao  chin),  which  continues 
usually  about  two  hours.  During  this  time  the  cold  water  in 
the  condenser  gets  heated,  is  allowed  to  escape  by  the  overflow 
pipe,  and  is  repeatedly  renewed.  The  distiller,  who  stands  just 
behind  the  handle  of  the  condenser,  watches  the  flow  of  samshu , 
and  he  has  two  ways  of  telling  the  proportion  of  spirit  coming 
over  in  the  liquid.  He  interposes  a small  leaden  flask  in  the 
way  of  the  flow,  and  if  the  liquid  in  rushing  in  forms  no  froth 
on  the  top  the  proportion  of  spirit  is  large,  if  froth  forms  it  is 
small ; but  the  practical  test  is  to  ascertain  by  a dipper  the 
quantity  in  the  receiver.  As  the  liquor  comes  over  pretty  hot 
some  alcohol  is  lost,  and  a person  standing  by  the  still  during 
distillation  may  easily  be  intoxicated  by  the  strong  fumes.  The 
quality  of  the  spirit  is  tested  by  adding  water  and  watching  the 
quantity  of  froth  which  forms  when  the  mixture  is  shaken,  and 
if  one-fifth  of  its  weight  can  be  added  to  the  liquor  without 
considerable  froth  forming  that  may  be  considered  “ Proof 
Spirit”.  Rectification  is  unknown  in  the  distilleries;  but  a 
much  pleasanter  tasted  and  stronger  liquor  may  occasionally  be 
procured  in  the  medicine  shops,  where  re-distillation  on  a small 
scale  is  practised. 

The  forced  draught  caused  by  the  wall  (MSF)  and  the  narrow 
opening  at  X produces  an  intense  heat,  and  the  ashes  of  the 
millet  stalks  come  out  through  Z in  a fused  mass  resembling 
clinkers  from  a furnace. 

In  Chapter  VIII.  I stated  that  owing  to  the  long  distance 
which  separates  the  producing  from  the  populous  centres,  and 


SPECIAL  INDUSTRIES 


235 


the  consequent  heavy  overland  freight,  numerous  distilleries  are 
scattered  about  the  former,  and  these  consume  large  quantities 
of  millet  in  the  manufacture  of  samshu , which,  being  less 
bulky  and  more  expensive  than  the  grain,  can  be  profitably 
conveyed  to  the  seaboard  for  shipment.  Even  at  the  time  of 
export  this  spirit  is  absurdly  cheap,  being  valued  at  less  than 
ljd.  per  lb.  in  weight.  In  the  distilleries  it  is  put  away  in 
willow  baskets  lined  with  tough  waterproof  paper  as  well  as  in 
earthenware  jars  carefully  stoppered  with  clay.  This  spirit 
finds  a ready  market  throughout  China,  and  is  exported  in 
large  quantities  both  by  steamer  and  junk,  chiefly  the  latter, 
from  Newchwang. 


CHAPTER  X 


THE  TRADE  OF  MANCHURIA 

IN  Chapters  VII.  and  VIII.  I have  endeavoured  to  enumerate 
the  various  products  of  Manchuria,  and  I propose  now  to 
show  how  far  these  are  utilised  for  trade,  what  the  wants  of 
Manchuria  are,  and  the  extent  to  which  these  wants  are  supplied. 

The  remarks  already  made  on  the  subject  of  climate  will 
have  prepared  the  reader  for  the  peculiar  conditions  under  which 
the  trade  of  these  northern  latitudes  is  conducted.  With  the 
exception  of  the  extreme  south  of  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula — 
Kuan-tung  as  it  is  called — the  whole  of  Manchuria  is  ice-bound 
for  at  least  four  months  of  the  year,  from  the  middle  of  November 
to  the  middle  of  March  in  the  south  and  from  the  middle  of 
October  to  the  beginning  of  May  in  the  far  north,  when  all 
water-borne  traffic  ceases.  The  closing  and  opening  of  the  rivers 
may  be  a little  earlier  or  later  according  to  the  severity  or 
mildness  of  the  season.  At  Newchwang,  for  example,  the  Liao 
River,  if  not  actually  blocked  by  the  end  of  November,  is 
dangerous  to  navigation  owing  to  floating  ice,  and  in  the  years 
1898,  1899  and  1900  it  broke  up  on  the  2nd  of  April,  10th  of 
March  and  23rd  of  March  respectively;  in  Central  Manchuria 
the  Sungari  at  Kirin  closes  about  the  middle  of  November  (on 
the  15th  in  1895)  and  opens  at  the  beginning  of  April  (on  the 
2nd  in  1896) ; and  the  Amur  in  the  extreme  north  closes  in 
October  and  opens  early  in  May.  Virtually,  therefore,  naviga- 
tion in  these  inland  waters  closes  from  four  to  six  months  out  of 
the  twelve,  and  all  trade  during  these  months  has  to  be  carried 


TRADE 


237 


by  land  or  on  the  ice.  In  the  centre  and  north,  where  there  is 
a heavier  snowfall  than  in  the  south,  sledges  are  in  common  use 
both  for  passengers  and  goods ; but  the  merchandise  thus 
transported  represents  only  a fractional  part  of  the  total  winter 
traffic  of  the  country.  Carts  are  the  railway  carriages,  trucks 
and  vans  of  Manchuria — small  covered  carts  with  two  or  three 
animals  for  passengers  and  light  valuable  produce  such  as  opium 
and  silk,  and  large  open  carts  with  teams  of  from  five  to  seven 
mules  or  ponies  (mostly  the  latter  number)  for  bringing  the 
heavy  and  bulky  products  of  the  interior  to  the  great  depots  of 
trade  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  there  to  await  the  opening  of 
navigation  in  spring,  and  for  conveying  back  into  the  interior 
the  necessaries  and  luxuries  of  life,  such  as  salt,  sugar,  Chinese 
produce  generally  and  foreign  manufactures.  This  trade,  as  I 
shall  show  hereafter,  is  immense,  and  it  might  be  supposed  that 
some  care  would  be  taken  to  keep  the  roads  on  which  it  has 
to  be  conducted  in  decent  repair;  but  the  absence  of  stone  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  alluvial  soil  over  which  the  great 
commercial  highways  run  in  Western  Manchuria  and  Eastern 
Mongolia  precludes  that  care  being  exercised  even  were  it 
contemplated,  and  during  the  rainy  season — July  and  August — 
the  roads  become  quagmires,  wherein  carts  and  their  teams,  when 
they  attempt  the  carriage  of  goods  at  that  season,  flounder  for 
days  and  weeks.  Later,  these  roads  with  their  deep  ruts  are 
frozen  solid,  and,  as  caravan  after  caravan  of  heavily-laden  carts 
rolls  along,  the  ridges  are  powdered  into  the  ruts,  leaving, 
towards  the  end  of  the  winter,  the  surface  smooth  and  slip- 
pery, with  here  and  there  deep  depressions — dangerous  pitfalls, 
where  the  unwieldly  carts  are  frequently  upset. 

The  nature  of  the  roads  has  led  to  the  building  of  carts 
capable  of  withstanding  the  bumping  and  jolting  to  which  they 
are  constantly  subjected.  Elm  and  oak  are  the  materials  used 
in  their  construction,  and  the  framework  of  the  cart — I am 


238 


MANCHURIA 


speaking  now  of  the  large  open  carts — rests,  by  means  of  beams 
of  wood  affixed  to  and  under  each  side  in  the  centre  and  lower 
half  of  which  a semi-circular  piece  is  removed,  on  a huge  axle- 
tree  joined  to  two  wheels  with  iron  tires  more  than  an  inch 
thick.  These  tires,  about  two  inches  wide,  are  made  up  of 
curved  lengths  of  iron,  nailed  in  a groove  to  the  fellies  of  the 
wooden  wheels,  which  revolve  with  the  axle.  To  add  to  its 
strength  pieces  of  iron  are  let  into  the  axle,  where  the  blocks 
under  the  framework  rest  upon  it.  A wheel  has  three  spokes, 
one  a massive  beam  and  two  smaller  beams  at  right  angles  to 
and  passing  through  it.  The  large  spoke  is  clasped  with  iron 
bands,  and  the  side  of  the  wheel  is  studded  with  large  iron 
rivets.  On  each  side  of  the  cart  there  is  a low  wooden  rail 
extending  backwards  (not,  however,  to  the  tail),  and  over  this 
rail  and  on  the  body  of  the  cart  produce  is  loaded  to  a consider- 
able height,  and  of  a weight  of  from  two  to  three  tons.  But 
the  load  is  always  so  well  balanced  that  there  is  no  pressure  on 
the  back  of  the  pony  in  the  short  shafts.  In  front  of  this  pony 
there  are  usually  two  rows,  three  abreast,  of  ponies,  but  more 
frequently  mules,  the  row  next  the  pony  being  attached  to  iron 
hooks  on  each  side  of  the  body  of  the  cart  by  long  hempen  ropes 
or  traces  fixed  to  their  collars,  and  the  front  row  in  a similar 
manner  to  the  shafts l. 

The  mules  in  each  row  are  loosely  joined  to  each  other 
by  ropes  connecting  their  collars,  but  they  have  neither  bits, 
bridles  nor  reins,  being  guided  by  the  voice  of  the  driver,  who, 
perched  on  the  top  of  the  load  in  front,  wields  in  both  hands 
an  enormous  whip,  long  enough  to  cover  the  whole  team. 

1 The  following  are  the  actual  measurements  of  a cart : — 

Length  . . . 15  feet.  Distance  between  shafts  26^  inches. 

Breadth  . . . 47  inches.  Circumference  of  axle  . 25  „ 

Length  of  rail  58  „ Diameter  of  wheel  . 43  ,, 

Height  of  rail  . . 13^  „ Breadth  of  tire  . . 2 ,, 

Length  of  shafts . . 55^  „ Thickness  of  tire  . . 1^  inch. 


TRADE 


239 


With  it  he  can  snip  any  animal  which  shows  the  least  dis- 
position to  play  the  laggard. 

Such  are  the  roads  and  the  means  of  transport  for  conveying 
the  produce  of  the  far  interior  of  Manchuria  and  Eastern 
Mongolia  to  places  of  shipment  on  the  great  trade  artery — 
the  Liao  River.  Many  thousands  of  carts  come  into  the  port 
of  Newchwang  (Ying-k’ou  or  Ying-kow)  every  winter ; but  as 
the  season  advances  and  the  roads  begin  to  soften  they  unload 
at  such  places  as  Tien-chuang-t’ai,  Hsin-min  T’ing,  'Tieh-ling 
Hsien  and  T'ung-chiang-tzu — the  great  depots  of  trade  in 
Southern  Manchuria,  where  the  goods  are  stored  until  the  ice 
breaks  up  and  the  river  opens  in  spring.  When  the  water- 
ways open  overland  traffic  virtually  ceases,  and  the  many 
thousands  of  animals  thus  let  loose  are  employed  in  tilling  the 
fields.  In  spring,  summer  and  autumn  a forest  of  masts  lines 
the  north  bank  of  the  Liao  opposite  the  town  of  Newchwang 
(Ying-k’ou),  proclaiming  that  thousands  of  boats  are  bringing 
down  the  produce  stored  in  the  depots  mentioned  above. 
Towards  the  beginning  and  middle  of  November  they  disappear 
into  the  interior,  where  they  are  drawn  up  and  beached  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  till  the  ensuing  spring.  Some  years  ago 
it  was  estimated  that  13,000  boats,  varying  in  capacity  from 
7y  to  14f  tons,  were  engaged  in  this  carrying  trade,  and  that 
each  boat  made  eight  trips  on  an  average  during  the  season, 
bringing  down  for  export  beans,  grain,  tobacco,  hemp  and  other 
produce,  and  taking  back  salt,  old  iron  and  general  cargo. 
They  are  manned  by  crews  of  from  three  to  five  men,  according 
to  size.  To-day,  owing  to  the  enormous  development  of  trade 
in  Manchuria  during  the  last  few  years,  it  may  be  stated  with 
perfect  safety  that  they  number  not  less  than  20,000,  and  every 
year  even  the  most  unobservant  eye  cannot  fail  to  detect  the 
large  admixture  of  new  craft. 

Having  in  previous  chapters  described  the  various  products 


240 


MANCHURIA 


of  Manchuria,  I proceed  now  to  examine  the  extent  to  which 
they  enter  into  the  trade  of  the  three  provinces.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  millet  ( Horcus  sorghum , L .)  is  the  principal  and 
most  valuable  crop  of  Manchuria ; but,  being  the  staple  food  of 
the  people,  the  common  feed  of  beasts  of  burden,  and  the  grain 
used  by  the  distilleries  in  the  manufacture  of  samshu , it  is  nearly 
all  consumed  in  the  country  itself,  and  what  is  not  consumed — 
an  insignificant  quantity  as  compared  with  the  total  output — 
can  be  exported  only  under  bond  or  Government  pass  to  other 
parts  of  China.  A small  quantity  is  occasionally  exported  by 
steamer  to  Northern  China,  where,  as  in  Manchuria,  it  is  the 
chief  food  grain  of  the  population  ; but  j unks  carry  the  bulk  of 
this  export  to  Tientsin,  Chefoo  and  other  small  ports  on  the 
coast  of  Chihli  and  Shantung,  and  a few  years  ago  I estimated 
that  at  least  50,000  tons  of  Kao-liang  ( Holcus  sorghum , L.)  and 
Hsiao-mi  ( Setaria  italica , Kth.\  of  the  value  of  about  <£180, 000 
(the  latter  grain  is  about  £1  dearer  per  ton  than  the  former), 
are  thus  conveyed  every  year.  Recently,  however,  there  has 
been  a general  advance  in  prices  throughout  Manchuria,  and 
the  above  value  is  now  undoubtedly  too  low. 

The  port  of  Newchwang,  the  only  port  in  Manchuria  as  yet 
open  to  foreign  trade,  is  the  chief  outlet  for  the  external  trade 
of  the  three  provinces,  and  it  is  the  only  place  at  which  reliable 
statistics  of  that  trade  are  obtainable.  These  statistics,  which 
are  collected  and  published  by  the  Imperial  Maritime  or  Foreign 
Customs,  cover  the  trade  in  vessels  of  foreign  type  only,  and  do 
not  include  the  native  junk  trade,  which  is  carried  on  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Native  Custom-House.  The  latter  is 
considerable,  but  no  trustworthy  figures  are  made  public,  so 
that,  while  the  minutest  details  of  the  trade  in  foreign  vessels 
are  forthcoming,  only  a rough  estimate  of  the  junk  traffic  of 
Manchuria  can  be  arrived  at.  I shall  deal  with  this  estimate 
later,  and  in  the  meantime  the  reader  should  bear  in  mind  that 


TRADE 


241 


the  following  figures,  perfectly  accurate  as  far  as  they  go,  refer 
to  the  great  bulk  of  the  trade  only. 

Very  gloomy  views  were  expressed  in  some  quarters  as  to  the 
commercial  future  of  Manchuria,  owing  to  the  invasion  and 
occupation  of  part  of  the  Southern  province  by  Japan,  in 
consequence  of  the  war  between  that  country  and  China  in 
1894-95  ; but  these  views  have  been  falsified  by  events,  for 
J apan  has  become  the  principal  market  for  Manchurian  produce, 
and  she  is  strenuously  endeavouring,  and  with  considerable 
success,  to  push  her  manufactures  where  she  now  buys  so  freely. 
But  the  distribution  of  exports  and  the  origin  of  imports  will 
be  discussed  hereafter,  and  I may  merely  state  here  that  since 
the  war  the  trade  of  Manchuria  has  actually  trebled.  In  giving 
details  of  its  commercial  condition  to-day  I propose  to  institute 
a comparison  between  the  two  years  1898  and  1899,  and  as, 
owing  to  the  fluctuations  in  exchange,  volume,  not  value,  is  the 
true  test  of  trade,  I shall  place  side  by  side  the  quantities  and 
the  silver  and  gold  values  of  the  exports  and  imports  through  the 
port  of  Newchwang,  the  chief  commercial  channel  of  Manchuria, 
and  I shall  then  refer  to  the  other  channels,  and  try  to  arrive 
at  an  estimate  of  the  trade  that  passes  through  them.  In  this 
connection  there  is  one  point  which  I wish  to  emphasise,  and 
it  is  this : in  the  returns  of  the  Imperial  Maritime  Customs, 
to  which  I am  indebted  for  the  following  figures,  treasure, 
whether  imported  or  exported,  is  always  treated  in  a separate 
table  and  excluded  from  the  lists  of  imports  and  exports;  but 
treasure  is  as  much  an  article  of  trade  as  silk  or  iron,  and  I shall 
introduce  it  in  its  proper  place.  Gold,  for  example,  is  extracted 
from  Manchurian  soil,  and  has  as  much  right  to  a place  in  the 
table  of  exports  as  any  other  product  of  the  country. 

The  chief  export  from  Manchuria  is  beans  and  their  products, 
bean-cake  and  bean-oil,  and  the  following  table  of  their  export 
Newchwang  in  foreign  bottoms  or,  to  be 


through 


242 


MANCHURIA 


accurate,  vessels  of  foreign  type  will  illustrate  better  than  any 
verbal  description  the  present  condition  of  the  trade  in  these 
articles,  and  show,  to  a great  extent,  the  measure  of  the 
country’s  buying  capacity — a measure  which,  happily  for  the 
foreign  manufacturer,  is  annually  expanding  as  new  areas  are 
being  placed  under  cultivation  and  fresh  markets  found  for  their 
splendid  harvests. 


EXPORT  OF  BEANS,  BEAN-CAKE  AND  BEAN-OIL. 


Produce. 

Uses. 

1898. 

1899. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Beans — 

Tons. 

Haikwan 

Taels. 

£ 

Tons. 

Haikwan 

Taels. 

£ 

Yellow  . ] 

| 

Beancake,  f 

I39>5o8 

4,687,827 

676,318 

153,745 

4,694,750 

706,658 

Green  . , 

Oil  and  -{ 

7L5IO 

2,402,747 

346,646 

95,649 

3,306,172 

497,648 

Black  . J 

Food  l 

20,806 

579,346 

83,583 

21,076 

602,492 

90,688 

Green,  small 

Vermicelli 

4»435 

178,581 

25,764 

3,328 

140,436 

21,138 

White  . 1 

Food  J 

1 

14, 7*5 

548,243 

79,095 

6,241 

216,153 

32,535 

Red  . j 

182 

6,870 

991 

389 

14,232 

2,142 

| 

r 

Fertiliser  'j 

Bean-cake  . ] 

i 

& Animal  > 

219,989 

5,828,715 

840,913 

260,798 

6,711,364 

1,010,200 

I 

l 

Feed  J 

Bean-oil  . -j 

r 

Food  and  } 
Light  ) 

6,448 

648,312 

93,532 

9,512 

1,000,193 

150,550 

Total  Export 

477»663 

14,880,641 

2,146,842 

550,738 

16,685,792 

2,5H,559 

Now,  what  I want  to  arrive  at  is  an  estimate  of  the  total 
production  of  pulse  in  Manchuria,  and  the  above  table  throws 
some  light  on  the  subject.  A simple  addition  sum  shows  that 
280,428  tons  of  beans  were  passed  through  the  Imperial  Maritime 
Customs  at  Newchwang  in  1899,  and  to  this  has  to  be  added 
the  quantity  of  beans  represented  by  260,798  tons  of  bean-cake. 
The  result  of  a series  of  experiments  made  by  me  from  time  to 
time  proves  that  the  average  yield  of  oil  is  nine  per  cent.,  that 
is,  one  hundred  tons  of  beans  are  required  to  produce  nine  tons 
of  oil,  so  that  286,591  tons  of  beans  must  have  been  treated  to 


TRADE 


243 


obtain  the  above  export  of  bean-cake,  and  this  added  to  the 
actual  bean  export  gives  a total  of  567,019  tons.  I may  be 
met  by  the  statement  that  the  total  tonnage  of  the  582  vessels 
of  foreign  type  which  cleared  outwards  from  Newchwang  in 
1899  was  only  503,209  tons,  and,  to  disarm  such  criticism,  it 
is  necessary  to  mention  that  register  tonnage  and  dead  weight 
carrying  capacity  are  very  different,  for  a steamer  of  a thousand 
tons  measurement  may,  and  frequently  does,  carry  three  thousand 
tons  weight  of  cargo.  So  far  the  figures  quoted  are  unim- 
peachable ; but  when  we  come  to  estimate  the  quantity  of  beans, 
and  bean-cake  carried  away  in  junks  from  Newchwang  and  other 
places  on  the  Manchurian  seaboard,  and  the  actual  consumption 
in  Manchuria  itself,  only  a rough  approximation  can  be  arrived 
at.  The  result  of  enquiries  made  in  1899  showed  that  some 
1,200  junks  of  various  sizes  left  Newchwang  in  that  year  with 
cargoes  for  China  Proper,  and,  if  sixty  tons  be  taken  as  the 
average  dead  weight  capacity  of  these  junks,  we  have  a total 
of  72,000  tons.  But  many  of  these  junks  are  exclusively  em- 
ployed in  carrying  millet  to  Tientsin  and  places  on  the  sea- 
board of  the  province  of  Shantung,  and,  in  all  probability, 
30,000  tons  are  thus  taken  up,  leaving  a balance  of  42,000  tons 
for  other  general  cargo,  of  which  it  may  be  assumed  that  two- 
thirds  is  made  up  of  beans  and  bean-cake.  This  would  repre- 
sent  30,000  tons  of  beans  to  be  added  to  the  figures  given  above, 
making  practically  a total  of  600,000  tons.  Now,  although  the 
statistics  of  Native  Custom  Houses  are  very  unreliable,  I have 
been  assured  that  three-fifths  of  the  Customs  revenue  derived 
from  cargoes  of  native  vessels  visiting  the  seaboard  of  Manchuria 
is  derived  from  the  port  of  Newchwang — in  other  words,  that 
Newxhwang  does  three-fifths  of  the  seaboard  junk  trade.  On 
this  basis,  therefore,  and  assuming  that  two-thirds  of  the  cargo 
consists  of  beans  and  bean-cake,  the  export  by  junk  from  other 
places  on  the  seaboard  should  be  only  some  12,000  tons.  And 


244 


MANCHURIA 


the  consumption  by  Manchuria  of  these  special  products  of  her 
own  is  small,  for,  as  I have  already  explained,  millet  is  the 
staple  food  of  the  people  as  well  as  of  animals,  and  the  agricul- 
turist utilises  his  farm  manure  on  his  fields  and  allows  the  more 
expensive  fertiliser  to  go  to  market  elsewhere.  Being  abso- 
lutely without  data  I prefer  to  hazard  no  figures  as  to  this 
consumption,  and  all  I can  confidently  state  is  that  over 
600,000  tons  of  beans  are  annually  produced  in  Manchuria. 
What  are  the  markets  for  this  produce?  A few  years  ago  the 
consumption  of  pulse  and  bean-cake  was  practically  confined  to 
the  southern  provinces  of  China  (through  the  ports  of  Swatow, 
Amoy  and  Canton),  where  mills  were  erected  for  extracting 
the  oil  from  the  beans,  and  the  bean-cake  was  used  for  ferti- 
lising the  sugar  plantations.  Since  the  Chino -Japanese  War, 
however,  the  Island  Empire,  having  realised  during  her  occupa- 
tion of  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula  the  value  of  Manchurian 
produce,  has  become  a gigantic  consumer,  and  in  1899  her 
purchases  exceeded  the  total  export  to  Southern  China.  Man- 
churian beans  can  now  be  laid  down  in  Japan  at  less  than  it 
costs  to  produce  the  same  varieties  in  that  country,  where  pulse 
enters  largely  into  the  diet  of  the  population,  and  bean-cake  is 
replacing  fish  manure,  which  of  recent  years  has  become  scarce 
and  dear  owing  to  the  dearth  of  herrings  along  the  Japanese 
coast.  Hong-Kong  also  appears  as  an  importer  on  a much 
smaller  scale;  but  that  island  is  merely  a distributer,  not  a 
consumer,  the  balance  of  the  import,  after  supplying  parts  of 
the  Canton  province,  going  to  the  sugar-fields  of  Java.  Nearly 
all  the  bean-oil  exported  through  Newchwang  is  consumed  in 
China.  I have  stated  above  that  286,591  tons  of  beans  must 
have  been  treated  to  produce  the  260,798  tons  of  bean-cake 
exported  in  vessels  of  foreign  type  in  1899,  while  the  yield  of  oil 
resulting  from  that  treatment  must  have  amounted  to  25,793 
tons.  But  only  9,512  tons  appear  in  the  returns  of  the  Imperial 


TRADE 


245 


Maritime  Customs,  showing  that,  after  satisfying  local  require- 
ments, a large  quantity  was  exported  by  junk  during  the  year. 
The  explanation  is  simple.  Owing  to  the  rough  roads,  bean-oil 
from  the  interior  of  Manchuria  is  brought  in  large  strong 
watertight  wooden  boxes  lined  with  paper  to  the  port  of  ship- 
ment, where  the  boxes  are  broken  up  and  the  contents,  like  the 
oil  extracted  in  Newchwang  itself,  poured  for  export  into  large 
brittle  jar-  or  carafe-shaped  wicker  baskets  lined  inside  and 
outside  with  layers  of  waterproof  paper.  These  baskets  will  not 
bear  the  rough  handling  incidental  to  shipping  on,  transhipping 
to,  and  discharging  from  steamers,  and  to  avoid  this  the  owner 
prefers  to  send  his  oil  by  junk  direct  to  its  destination  on  the 
coast  of  China. 

I have  dwelt  at  considerable  length  on  the  subject  of  beans 
and  their  products ; but  I am  sure  the  reader  will  exonerate  me 
from  discursiveness  on  learning  that  of  the  sum  of  i?3, 103,000, 
which  represents  the  total  value  of  produce  exported  through 
Newchwang  in  vessels  of  foreign  type  in  1899,  their  aggregate 
value  amounted  to  51 1,559.  They  are,  in  a word,  the 

wealth  of  Manchuria. 

Prior  to  1897  gold  ranked  second  in  value  of  the  products 
of  Manchuria,  but  silk  has  now  usurped  that  place.  In  Chapter 
VIII.  I treated  silk  as  one  of  the  special  industries  of  the  country, 
and  I have  only  to  add  that,  as  the  eastern  hilly  part  of  F&ng- 
t’ien  is  being  taken  up  by  settlers,  greater  attention  is  being 
paid  to  oak  cultivation  and  the  production  of  silk.  The  follow- 
ing table,  which  I have  drawn  up  from  the  Customs  Returns  for 
1898  and  1899,  shows  the  nature,  extent  and  value  of  the  export 
by  steamer  from  Newchwang  : — 


246 


MANCHURIA 


EXPORT  OF  SILK,  1898-99. 


Silk. 

1898. 

1899. 

Weight. 

Value. 

Weight. 

Value. 

Raw,  wild 
Refuse 
Cocoons  . 

Piece  Goods 
Pongees  . 

Raw,  white 
,,  yellow 

Total  Export 

Cwt. 

9.34I-67 

4,691-67 

i-ig 

4-76 

Haikwan 

Taels. 

1,255.547 

118,234 

354 

782 

£ 

181,139 

i7,°57 

5i 

113 

Cwt. 

16,629*76 

7,904-17 

22-62 

19-05 

10-71 

10-71 

Haikwan 

Taels. 

2,362,625 

212,711 

481 

4,671 

3,178 

3,206 

£ 

355,624 

32,018 

72 

703 

478 

483 

14,039-29 

1,374,917 

198,360 

24,597-02 

2,586,872 

389,378 

It  will  be  observed  from  the  above  table  that  very  little 
manufactured  silk  is  exported,  and,  indeed,  little  is  manufactured, 
the  industry  been  confined  for  the  most  part  to  reeling  the 
raw  silk  for  market.  Although  the  port  of  Newchwang  is  an 
important  outlet  for  this  trade,  owing  to  its  proximity  to  the 
silk  centres  of  Hai-ch’eng,  Hsiu-yen  and  Kai-plng,  yet  there 
are  numerous  smaller  ports  to  the  south  and  south-west,  notably 
Ta-ku-shan,  whence  the  silk  is  carried  by  junks,  Chinese  steamers 
and  even  Chinese  gunboats  to  the  mainland  of  China,  principally 
to  the  province  of  Shantung.  Previous  to  the  Russian  occupa- 
tion of  Kuan-tung  there  was  a considerable  export  through 
Port  Arthur.  The  above  figures,  therefore,  do  not  profess  to 
represent  the  total  export  of  silk  from  Manchuria ; but  the 
chances  are  that  they  account  for  the  great  bulk  of  the 
trade. 

In  dealing  with  the  export  of  gold  from  Manchuria  I must 
ask  my  reader  to  bear  in  mind  what  I said  in  Chapter  VIII. 
regarding  the  production  of  the  precious  metal  and  the  doubts 
there  expressed  as  to  its  place  of  origin.  It  will  be  seen  from 
the  accompanying  table  that  the  greater  part  of  the  export 
from  Newchwang  which  these  figures  represent  consists  of  bars. 


TRADE 


247 


These  weigh,  as  a rule,  ten  Chinese  ounces.  They  occupy 
little  space,  and,  as  the  freight  on  treasure  is  comparatively 
heavy,  they  are  easily  carried  on  the  person  or  in  the  baggage 
of  a passenger,  and  it  is  only  in  the  case  of  large  consignments 
that  the  owner  takes  advantage  of  a steamer’s  treasure-room 
and  insurance  against  loss.  Again,  these  bars  are  bought  and 
hoarded  by  the  wealthy  in  Manchuria  in  preference  to  accumu- 
lating silver,  which  is  bulky  and  less  easily  concealed,  while  a 
considerable  quantity  is  annually  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
jewellery,  the  purchase  of  which  is  practically  another  way 
of  investing  spare  capital.  From  the  above  the  reader  will 
readily  understand  how  impossible  it  is  to  arrive  at  an  estimate 
of  the  annual  output  of  the  Manchurian  gold  mines,  and  the 
quantities  reported  to  the  Imperial  Maritime  Customs  at 
Newchwang  in  1898-99  given  below  must  be  looked  upon  as 
only  a portion  of  the  total  production.  In  both  years  the  whole 
of  this  gold,  with  the  exception  of  coins  of  the  value  of  £226 
sent  to  Chefoo  in  1899,  was  exported  to  Shanghai. 

EXPORT  OF  GOLD  FROM  MANCHURIA  THROUGH  NEWCHWANG, 

1898-1899. 


1898. 

1899. 

Value. 

Value. 

Bars 

Dust 

Shoes  

Leaf 

Coins 

Total  Export 

Haikwan 

Taels. 

941,020 

1,800 

92,690 

£ 

i35,762 

260 

13,372 

Haikwan 

Taels. 

1,056,932 

160,000 

135,600 

1,038 

3,493 

£ 

159,090 

24,083 

20,411 

156 

526 

1,035,510 

149,394 

i,357,063 

204,266 

There  is  a very  large  annual  export  of  gold  from  the  port  of 
Tientsin,  and  it  is  most  probable  that  a part  of  this  export  is 
derived  from  Manchuria  ; but,  in  the  absence  of  any  authorita- 
tive statistics,  it  is  impossible  to  say  definitely  whence  this  gold 


248 


MANCHURIA 


is  derived.  In  1898  it  amounted  in  value  to  Haikwan  taels 
3,973,602  or  £ 573,275 , and  consisted  solely  of  bars.  The 
figures  for  1899  have  not  yet  come  to  hand. 

Although,  as  stated  in  Chapter  VIII.,  silver  exists  in  Man- 
churia, it  is  not  worked,  and  does  not,  therefore,  form  a product 
of  the  country.  There  is,  however,  a considerable  annual 
export  in  the  shape  of  sycee  or  lump  silver  and  dollars.  In 
1898  it  was  sent  away  from  Newchwang  to  the  value  of  Haikwan 
taels  465,812  or  i?67,203,  of  which  a sum  of  Haikwan  taels 
19,085  or  i?2,753  was  exported  to  foreign  countries,  the 
balance  going  to  Chinese  ports,  notably  Shanghai  and  Chefoo. 
Over  92  per  cent,  of  the  total  consisted  of  sycee,  and  over  7 per 
cent,  of  dollars.  In  1899  the  total  export  is  given  as  of  the 
value  of  Haikwan  taels  3,313,005  or  i?498,676 ; but  as  the  sum 
of  Haikwan  taels  147,000  or  <P22,127  was  sent  from  New- 
chwang to  Port  Arthur,  it  was  merely  a movement  from  one 
part  of  Manchuria  to  another,  and  I omit  it  as  an  export.  The 
balance  of  Haikwan  taels  3,166,005  or  <P476,549,  therefore, 
represents  the  true  export  of  silver  from  Manchuria  through 
Newchwang  in  1899.  It  was  made  up  of  bars  (Haikwan 
taels  40,000  or  <P6,021),  sycee  (Haikwan  taels  1,004,900  or 
<P151,258)  and  dollars  (Haikwan  taels  28,408  or  <P4,276) — a 
total  of  <P161,555  to  foreign  countries ; and  sycee  (Haik- 
wan taels  691,010  or  <P104,011)  and  dollars  (Haikwan  taels 
1,401,687  or  ^210,983) — a total  of  <P314,994  to  the  Chinese 
ports  of  Shanghai,  Tientsin,  Chefoo  and  Canton.  In  this  con- 
nection I may  mention  that  within  the  last  three  years  mints 
have  been  established  at  Kirin  and  Moukden,  where  silver 
dollar,  fifty,  twenty,  ten  and  five  cent  pieces  are  struck.  In 
1898  a consignment  of  10,000  Kirin  dollars  was  shipped  to 
Shanghai  to  be  placed  upon  the  Chinese  market,  but  they  were 
rejected  and  returned.  These  coins  circulate  freely  in  Man- 
churia, and  the  Russo-Chinese  Bank  borrowed  for  a time  the 


TRADE 


249 


use  of  the  Kirin  mint  to  facilitate  payments  to  the  workmen 
on  the  Manchurian  or  Chinese  Eastern  Railway.  The  work  at 
these  mints  is  very  intermittent. 

I have  explained  elsewhere  why  it  is  that  Corean  ginseng  has 
within  recent  years  declined  as  an  export  through  Manchuria, 
and  in  1898  and  1899  it  disappeared  from  the  Customs  Returns. 
The  native  article,  however,  still  forms  a valuable  export,  as  will 
be  seen  from  the  following  table  : — 

EXPORT  OF  GINSENG  FROM  MANCHURIA  THROUGH 
NEWCHWANG,  1898-99. 


Variety. 

1898. 

1899. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Native  Ginseng 
Beard 

Roots  and  Cuttings 
Wild 

Lb. 

255.067 

59.067 

5.733 

117 

Haikwan 

Taels. 

182,166 

26,341 

2,146 

7,289 

£ 

26,281 

3,800 

310 

1,052 

Lb. 

305,867 

70,667 

12,533 

259 

Haikwan 

Taels. 

176,732 

25,034 

4,418 

16,109 

£ 

26,602 

3,768 

665 

2,425 

Total  Export 

319,984 

217,942 

3i,443 

389,326 

222,293 

33,46o 

Moukden  is  the  great  skin  and  fur  market  of  Manchuria. 
It  contains  numerous  factories  for  dressing  the  raw  skins  and 
preparing  them  for  export,  and  it  supplies  a great  part  of  the 
finer  furs  which  appear  in  the  Tientsin  Customs  export  list. 
Manchurian  furs  have  a large  sale  in  Peking  and  in  North  China 
generally  ; but  as  these  goods  are  carried  overland  from  Mouk- 
den to  Tientsin  there  is  no  means  of  arriving  at  the  annual 
volume  and  value  of  the  trade.  The  export  through  the  port 
of  Newchwang  is  also  very  considerable,  as  the  following  table 
shows  : — 


250 


MANCHURIA 


EXPORT  OF  SKINS  AND  FURS  FROM  MANCHURIA  THROUGH 
NEWCHWANG,  1898-1899. 


Variety. 

1898. 

1899. 

Number. 

Value. 

Number. 

Value. 

Pieces. 

Haikwan 

Taels. 

£ 

Pieces. 

Haikwan 

Taels. 

£ 

Skin  (fur)  clothing  . 

14.439 

30,322 

4,375 

12,634 

20,205 

3,041 

,,  mats,  dog 

60,010 

33,861 

4,885 

44,479 

33,836 

5,093 

„ „ goat  . 

6,165 

3,796 

548 

I5,36o 

10,295 

i,55o 

„ „ sundry  . 

„ rugs,  dog  . 

961 

1,660 

239 

50 

100 

15 

42,980 

35,320 

5,096 

70,858 

47,686 

7,178 

„ „ goat. 

3.290 

4,407 

636 

6,913 

6,168 

928 

,,  ,,  sundry 

664 

846 

122 

509 

1,118 

153 

Skins  (furs) — 
Fox  tails 

10,321 

507 

73 

20,630 

1,032 

155 

Goat  (raw)  . 

26,245 

3,210 

463 

50,483 

6,237 

939 

Lamb  . 

3.267 

995 

r44 

4,869 

1,461 

220 

Hare  . 

3,r6o 

379 

55 

2,239 

269 

4° 

Raccoon 

1,910 

1,146 

165 

— 

— 

— 

Sable  . 

124 

868 

125 

413 

2,309 

348 

Sheep  . 

4.750 

957 

138 

220 

126 

19 

Squirrel 

10,149 

2,538 

366 

2,774 

694 

104 

Tiger  . 

14 

355 

5i 

— 

— 

— 

Weasel 

49,201 

10,561 

1,524 

72,140 

15,850 

2,386 

Various 

38,851 

3,233 

466 

22,902 

5,984 

901 

Total  Export  . 

276,501 

134,961 

19, 471 

327,473 

153,270 

23,070 

There  should  be  added  to  the  above  table,  as  an  export  in 
1899,  2,800  lb.  of  squirrel  tails  of  the  value  of  Haikwan  taels 
8,135  or  ^1,224. 

The  above  are  the  main  exports  from  Manchuria  through 
Newchwang,  and  the  following  table  contains  the  remaining 
products,  some  of  which  are  of  considerable  value  : — 


TRADE 


251 


MINOR  EXPORTS  FROM  MANCHURIA  THROUGH  NEWCHWANG, 

i8g8-gg. 


Articles. 

1898. 

1899. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Haikwan 

Haikwan 

Taels. 

£ 

Taels. 

£ 

Bags,  Hemp 

Pieces. 

88,45g 

2,86l 

4*3 

80,130  ! 

2,88g 

435 

„ Straw 

)> 

439,130 

5,646 

815 

353,ooo  j 

4,578 

68g 

Bones,  Cow  & Refuse 

Cwt. 

14,563 

9,905 

1,429 

13,536 

9,277 

L396 

„ Tiger  . 

n 

!7 

924 

133 

— 

— 

Bristles 

Lb. 

94,933 

3L732j 

4,578 

110,400 

40,166 

6,046 

Clams,  Dried  . 

Cwt. 

2,387 

7,653  ! 

1,104 

— 

— 

— 

Crabs,  Salted  . 

99 

I,772 

4,059 

586 

— 

— 

— 

Felt  .... 

Pieces. 

3,920 

1,307 

i8g 

5,oi4 

L459 

220 

Fish,  Dried  & Salted 

Cwt. 

5,4i2 

13,721 

i,979 

7,670 

18,781 

2,827 

Glue,  Deer-horn,  Imi- 

tation  . 

Lb. 

12,533 

3,041 

439 

13,333 

3,477 

523 

Ground-nuts 

Cwt. 

3,i49 

6,177 

8gi 

io,ig4 

16,724 

2,517 

Hair,  Horse,  Manes. 

Lb. 

35,867 

10,673 

1,540 

12,400 

1,887 

284 

„ „ Tails  . 

,, 

37,600 

io,85g 

1,567 

43,067 

11,144 

1,677 

„ Raccoon  . 

99 

4,933 

4,421 

638 

8,000 

8,271 

1,245 

Hemp 

Cwt. 

1,538 

5,027 

725 

1,914 

g,62i 

1,448 

Hides,  Cow  & Buffalo 

„ 

542 

8,193 

1,182 

— 

— 

— 

Horns,  Deer 

99 

181 

5,326 

768 

63 

2,111 

3i8 

„ „ Young  . 

Pairs. 

L775 

44,874 

6,474 

i,712 

43,177 

6,499 

„ „ Old 

Cwt. 

54 

1,788 

258 

67 

2,224 

335 

Jadestone . 

99 

4,279 

5,75i 

830 

2,670 

3,598 

542 

Job’s  Tears 

99 

8,521 

21,923 

3,163 

4,850 

14,010 

2, iog 

Leather,  Green 

Lb. 

L733 

i,255 

181 

L333 

1,000 

151 

Liquorice  . 

Cwt. 

1,54° 

5,346 

77 1 

2,97° 

9,985 

1,503 

Mats 

Pieces. 

ii2,go5 

7,136 

1,030 

ng,827 

7,729 

1,163 

Medicines 

Value. 

— 

148,497 

21,424 

— 

114,548 

17,242 

Millet  (Small)  . 

Cwt. 

35,725 

39,99i 

5,770 

25,104 

41, in 

6,188 

Mushrooms 

Lb. 

2,666 

1,125 

162 

22,000 

6,459 

972 

Musk 

Oz. 

2,ng 

n,gi8 

i,7i9 

L479 

8,318 

1,252 

Oil,  Castor 

Cwt. 

8,101 

47,639 

6,873 

6,337 

32,118 

4,834 

Oil,  Refuse 

99 

1,967 

1,270 

183 

— 

— 

Opium,  Native  . 

Lb. 

4 

i7 

2 

— 

— 

— 

Pears,  Fresh 

Cwt. 

7,886 

10,023 

1,446 

3,43i 

5,855 

881 

Potatoes  . 

99 

6,305 

2,585 

373 

2,5°g 

1,047 

158 

Prawns  and  Shrimps, 

Dried  . 

99 

I9,I°9 

56,555 

8,159 

30,002 

85,522 

12,873 

Rugs,  Felt 

Pieces. 

8,685 

2,g32 

423 

— 

— 

Samshu  . 

Cwt. 

I7,i5i 

65,663 

9,473 

ig,82g 

8g,oo3 

13,397 

Seed,  Apricot  . 

99 

1,272 

6,674 

963 

473 

2,8gi 

435 

„ Pine 

99 

— 

— 

— 

544 

1,230 

185 

„ Melon 

99 

20,748 

70,180 

10,125 

38,006 

134,679 

20,272 

„ Sesamum 

99 

10,582 

33,863 

4,885 

37,786 

106,046 

15,962 

Sinews,  Deer,  Cow 

and  Buffalo  . 

,, 

977 

14,849 

2,142 

88g 

17,979 

2,706 

Sundries,  unclassed  . 

Value. 

33,538 

4,839 

— 

25,931 

3,903 

Tobacco,  Leaf  . 

Cwt. 

6,877 

39,706 

5,728 

4,739 

32,842 

4,943 

Vermicelli  and  Maca- 

roni 

„ 

6,856 

28,7g6 

4,r54 

8, goo 

40,283 

6,064 

Wax,  Yellow  . 

Lb. 

g,2oo 

2,400 

346 

5,333 

1,419 

214 

Wheat 

Cwt. 

1,190 

2,000 

28g 

— 

839,819 

121,161 

— 

959,389 

144,408 

252 


MANCHURIA 


The  above  constituted  the  export  trade  of  Manchuria,  in 
vessels  of  foreign  type,  through  the  port  of  Newchwang  during 
the  years  1898-99,  and  it  will  be  convenient  for  the  reader 
interested  in  commercial  statistics  if  I give  here  a summary  of 
that  trade. 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  EXPORT  TRADE  OF  MANCHURIA  THROUGH 
NEWCHWANG,  i8g8-i8gg. 


Exports. 

1898. 

1899. 

Value. 

Value. 

Beans,  Bean-cake  and  Bean-oil 

Silk 

Gold 

Silver 

Ginseng  .... 

Skins  and  Furs 
Miscellaneous 

Haikwan 

Taels. 

14,880,641 

1,374,917 

1,035,510 

465,812 

217,942 

134,961 

839,819 

£ 

2,146,842 

198,360 

149,394 

67,203 

3U443 

i9,47i 

121,161 

Haikwan 

Taels. 

16,685^2 
2,586,872 
i,357,o63 
3,166,005 
222, 2g3 
161,405 

959,389 

£ 

2,5n,559 

389,378 

204,266 

476,549 

33,46o 

24,294 

144,408 

Total 

i8,g4g,6o2 

2,733,894 

25,138, 8ig 

3,783,914 

It  would  be  interesting  to  trace  the  goods,  of  which  the 
above  table  represents  the  values,  to  their  ultimate  destinations  ; 
but,  as  transhipment  to  foreign  countries  and  Chinese  ports  is 
effected  at  such  places  as  Shanghai  and  Hong-Kong,  where  their 
identity  is  lost  sight  of,  it  is  possible  to  give  here  only  the  result 
of  the  direct  shipments  from  the  port — in  other  words,  to  record 
the  countries  and  Chinese  ports  to  which  the  goods  are  con- 
signed on  shipment  at  Newchwang.  That,  then,  is  the  object 
of  the  following  table : — 


TRADE 


258 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  MANCHURIAN  EXPORTS  THROUGH  THE 
PORT  OF  NEWCHWANG,  1898-99. 


Country  or  Port. 

1898. 

1899. 

Value. 

Value. 

Great  Britain  . 

Haikwan 

Taels. 

5.415 

£ 

781 

Haikwan 

Taels. 

146 

£ 

22 

Russian  Manchuria 

I,6oi 

231 

3,917 

589 

Corea  .... 

58,524 

8,443 

8,669 

1,305 

Japan  .... 

6,684,732 

964,412 

8,091,320 

1,217,912 

Hong-Kong  . 

432,368 

62,378 

772,792 

116,321 

Other  Foreign  Countries 

15,270 1 

2,203 

887,700 1 

133,617 

Port  Arthur 

4,280  2 

617 

3,694  2 

556 

Tientsin 

176,713 

25,495 

202,162 

30,430 

Chefoo  .... 

565.979 

81,654 

728,942 

109,721 

Ichang  .... 

— 

— 

197 

30 

Hankow  .... 

38,253 

5,519 

21,613 

3,253 

Kinkiang 

1,094 

158 

730 

no 

Shanghai 

3,498,488 

504,730 

6,549,577 

985,848 

Ningpo  .... 

8,576 

1,237 

12,114 

1,823 

Foochow 

2,405 

347 

1,010 

1,807,842 

152 

Amoy  .... 

1,632,617 

235,539 

272,118 

Swatow  .... 

3,289,012 

474,508 

3,356,341 

505,199 

Canton  .... 

2,534,275 

365,622 

2,690,053 

404,909 

Total 

18,949,602 

2,733,874 

25,138,819 

3,783,915 

With  two  Customs  Administrations,  one  of  which  publishes 
reliable  trade  statistics,  while  the  other  gives  no  returns  what- 
ever, and  with  a number  of  small,  little-known  ports  on  the  sea- 
board visited  only  by  junks,  it  is  impossible  to  present  a perfect 
balance-sheet  of  the  sea-borne  trade  of  Manchuria ; but,  as  with 
exports,  so  with  imports,  the  great  bulk  of  the  trade  passes 
through  the  port  of  Newchwang,  and  I shall  now  endeavour  to 
furnish  a summary  of  the  purchases  which  Manchuria  makes 
with  the  proceeds  of  her  exports.  The  following  are  the  figures 
for  1898-99 : — 


1 These  figures  represent  treasure  only. 

2 This  might  be  excluded  from  the  external  trade  of  Manchuria,  as  it  consists 
of  the  movement  of  goods  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another  for  local 
consumption  and  not  for  export.  It  is,  properly  speaking,  part  of  the  home 
trade  of  Manchuria. 


254 


MANCHURIA 


SUMMARY  OF  IMPORTS  INTO  MANCHURIA  THROUGH  THE 
PORT  OF  NEWCHWANG,  1898-1899. 


1898. 

1899. 

1 

1 Haikwan 

Foreign  Goods — Taels. 

Indian  Opium  . . . 1 62,311 

Cottons  . . . . 7,698,392 

Woollens  . . . . | 210,630 

Miscellaneous  Piece  Goods  . j 2,307 

Metals i 627,894 

Sundries  . . . . j 1, 975 ,937 

Treasure  . . . . i 6,396,905 

Native  Goods  . . . 4,415,564 

£ 

8,989 

1,110,653 

30,388 

333 

90,587 

285,070 

922,887 

637,037 

Haikwan 

Taels. 

729,929 

13,564,962 

338,204 

42,432 

800,183 

6,300,220 

9,684,414 

5,965,942 

£ 

109,870 

2,041,809 

50,907 

6,387 

120,444 

948,314 

1,457,706 

897,998 

Total  . . . (21,389,940 

3,085,944 

37,426,286 

5,633,435 

In  the  early  years  of  the  port  of  Newchwang  one  of  the 
principal  imports  was  Indian  opium ; but,  as  I have  explained 
elsewhere,  Manchuria  now  grows  sufficient  not  only  to  supply 
her  own  wants,  but  also  to  admit  of  an  export  to  the  northern 
provinces  of  China.  This  surplus  is  carried  overland  by  cart, 
and  does  not  appear  in  any  Customs  Returns.  The  import 
of  Indian  opium  in  1898,  amounting  as  it  did  to  12,257  lb.,  was 
comparatively  large,  the  quantities  imported  in  1896  and  1897 
being  4,284  lb.  and  3,731  lb.  respectively.  But  a failure  of  the 
rainfall  in  the  poppy -growing  districts  in  1898-99  caused  a 
shortage  in  the  harvest,  and  131,488  lb.  of  Indian  and  44,400 
lb.  of  native  opium  from  Ssu-ch'uan  and  other  provinces  were 
brought  in  during  1899  to  make  good  the  deficiency.  The 
Indian  opium  of  late  years  imported  into  Manchuria  may  be 
described  as  the  luxury  of  the  rich. 

There  is,  however,  one  branch  of  the  import  trade  of  far 
greater  importance  to  India  than  opium.  In  1898  Indian 
cotton  yarn  amounting  to  cwt.  163,539,  of  the  value  of 
Haikwan  taels  2,807,573  (£405,051),  was  imported,  and  in 
1899  the  import  rose  to  cwt.  250,432,  valued  at  Haikwan 
taels  4,793,094  (£721,460).  Add  to  this  Haikwan  taels 


TRADE 


255 


48,218  (£7,258) — the  value  of  T.  cloths,  drills  and  sheetings 
of  Indian  manufacture — and  we  find  that  India  accounts  for 
Haikwan  taels  4,841,312  (£728,718)  of  the  total  value  (Haik- 
wan  taels  13,564,962  or  £2,041,809)  of  cottons  imported  into 
Manchuria  through  Newchwang  in  1899.  How  long  India  will 
maintain  her  supremacy  in  yarn  it  is  difficult  to  say,  for 
Japan,  although  her  present  contribution  to  this  article  of  trade 
is  much  smaller,  has  recently  shown  a larger  proportionate 
increase.  In  1898  her  contribution  was  cwt.  17,075,  and  in 
1899  it  was  cwt.  50,515.  But  there  is  a danger  both  to  India 
and  to  Japan  in  the  Chinese  Steam  Cotton  Mills,  which,  if 
the  difficulties  they  have  to  contend  with  in  purchasing  raw 
cotton  can  be  overcome,  are  bound  to  become  powerful  rivals. 
In  1898  they  sent  cwt.  12,472,  and  in  1899  cwt.  17,311  to 
Newchwang.  While  England  still  maintains  her  supremacy  as 
regards  shirtings,  she  has  been  all  but  driven  from  the  field  in 
such  articles  as  sheetings,  drills  and  jeans  by  America,  which 
easily  holds  the  leading  place  in  the  cotton  goods  trade  of 
Manchuria.  The  following  table  shows  at  a glance  the  present 
condition  of  the  trade  in  these  three  classes  of  goods  : — 


Cottons. 

1898. 

1899. 

Pieces. 

Value. 

Pieces. 

Value. 

Sheetings,  American 

625,982 

£ 

310,789 

1,101,765 

£ 

588,674 

,,  Indian  . 

9,730 

3,930 

14,050 

6,188 

„ English 

15,330 

7,520 

11,911 

6,159 

,,  Japanese 

260 

112 

7,810 

3,527 

,,  Chinese 

Drills,  American  . 

— 

— 

34,900 

16,223 

367,916 

183,291 

584,877 

304,601 

„ English 

1,650 

738 

3,870 

1,836 

„ Indian 

I’6g5 

677 

630 

284 

,,  Dutch 

— 

— 

480 

210 

„ Japanese 

— 

— 

395 

172 

„ Chinese 

— 

— 

450 

208 

Jeans,  American  . 

3,380 

1,430 

29,630 

13,380 

„ English 

13,560 

5,145 

9,250 

3,660 

,,  Dutch 

~ 

1,680 

632 

256 


MANCHURIA 


It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  the  total  number  of 
American  sheetings,  drills  and  jeans  rose  from  997,278  pieces 
in  1898  to  1,625,272  pieces  in  1899,  and  that  the  English 
declined  from  30,540  to  25,031,  and  I may  be  allowed  to  quote 
here  an  extract  from  my  Report  on  the  Trade  of  Newchwang 
for  1898  : “In  other  words,  the  chief  markets  for  American 
manufactured  cottons  in  China  are  the  northern  provinces  and 
Manchuria.  Why  is  this  so,  and  why  is  it  that  American 
cottons  are  superseding  English  goods  in  these  markets  P The 
answer  is  that  the  heavier  makes  of  goods  are  in  greatest 
demand  in  the  colder  north,  that  America  is  our  competitor 
in  these  makes,  and  that  these  American  goods  are  superior 
to  and  cheaper  than  English.  I am  told  that  the  proof  of  the 
superiority  of  the  American  goods  is  in  the  washing:  when 
English  goods  are  washed  and  the  heavy  sizing  removed  they 
are  very  inferior  to  the  American  article  when  similarly  treated. 
America  is  at  present  a successful  rival  in  the  heavier  manu- 
factured cottons,  and  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  her  from 
entering  the  lists  against  us  in  the  higher  grades.  The  setting 
up  of  machinery  for  the  purpose  is  simply  a question  of  time, 
and  if  we  are  to  regain  the  ground  which  we  have  already  lost, 
and  maintain  what  is  left  to  us,  we  must  manufacture  goods 
equal  to  and  as  cheap  as  those  of  our  rival.”  It  has  been 
officially  denied  that,  class  for  class,  American  cotton  goods 
are  cheaper  than  English ; but  I am  prepared  to  stand  by  the 
market  quotations  in  Manchuria,  and  by  the  assurances  of  an 
American  merchant,  through  whose  hands  the  greater  part  of 
the  piece  goods  trade  of  Manchuria  passes.  The  difference — 
a few  cents — may  not  be  very  great ; but  it  is  sufficient  to  turn 
the  scale  in  the  eyes  of  the  Chinese  merchant  and  consumer  in 
favour  of  the  American  goods. 

It  might  naturally  be  supposed  that  in  the  severe  climate  of 
Manchuria  woollen  goods  would  be  in  great  demand  for  clothing 


TRADE 


257 


during  the  winter  months.  With  the  exception,  however,  of 
materials  for  military  uniforms  and  female  underwear,  there  is 
little  demand  for  woollens.  The  inhabitants  of  Manchuria  prefer 
to  array  themselves  in  winter  in  sheep-skins  and  other  furs, 
which  are  plentiful,  cheap  and  warmer  and  more  durable  than 
woollen  fabrics,  or  in  wadded  cotton  clothes. 

I have  already  described  the  cart  by  which  the  great  overland 
traffic  is  transported,  and  stated  that  the  wheels  are  bound  with 
massive  iron  tires  to  withstand  the  rough  roads  of  the  country. 
When  one  considers  the  many  thousands  of  carts  engaged  in 
this  transport,  that  each  cart  is  drawn  by  a team  of  some  seven 
animals,  that  the  country  is  gradually  being  opened  up  to 
agriculture,  and  that  iron  mines  are  as  yet  little  exploited,  it 
is  not  surprising  that  there  is  a large  demand  for  foreign  iron  to 
be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  tires,  horse-shoes,  nails  and  farm 
implements.  Old  iron  of  every  variety  and  shape,  from  boiler 
plates  to  railway  spikes  and  horse-shoes,  is,  owing  to  its  cheapness, 
preferred  by  the  local  blacksmiths,  and  12,631  tons,  of  the  value 
of  Haikwan  taels  322,158  or  =£48,491,  were  imported  in  1899. 
But  iron  in  the  shape  of  nail-rod,  bar,  hoop,  sheets  and  plates, 
wire,  pig  and  kentledge,  nails,  anchors  and  chains,  screws  and 
iron-ware,  of  the  value  of  Haikwan  taels  141,090  or  ^£21,237, 
was  also  imported  in  1899,  and  this  added  to  the  value  of  the 
old  iron  gives  a sum  of  J?69,728,  or  more  than  half  the  total 
value  of  all  the  metals  imported  during  the  year.  The  other 
principal  metal  imports  were  pig  lead,  copper  slabs  from  Japan, 
steel  bars,  spelter  and  German  silver. 

The  value  of  sundries  or  miscellaneous  goods  imported  in 
1898  and  1899  was  much  above  the  average  of  previous  years, 
and  the  increase  was  due  in  the  main  to  plant  and  materials 
required  for  the  construction  and  working  of  the  two  railways 
now  being  built  in  Manchuria.  These  railways,  of  which  I have 

already  spoken,  are  the  Russian  or  Chinese  Eastern  Railway, 

17 


258 


MANCHURIA 


which  will  connect  Port  Arthur  with  Kaidalovo  on  the  Trans- 
Baikal  section  of  the  Siberian  Railway,  and  the  Imperial  Railway 
of  North  China,  which  now  connects  Peking  and  Tientsin  with 
Newch  wang,  and  is  being  extended  from  Kou-pang-tzu,  on  the 
Shan-hai-kuan — Newchwang  section,  to  Hsin-min-t’un,  or,  as  it 
is  known  officially,  Hsin-min  T’ing,  because  it  is  the  seat  of 
a ' Ting  or  Independent  Sub-Prefect.  In  1898  and  1899  these 
miscellaneous  imports  were  valued  at  Haikwan  taels  1,975,937 
or  i?285,070,  and  Haikwan  taels  6,300,220  or  i?948,314,  of 
which  the  sums  of  <P74,340  and  i?504,519  are  respectively  set 
down  as  the  value  of  railway  requirements ; but  there  were  other 
items,  such  as  cement,  which,  though  not  classed  as  plant  and 
materials,  were  undoubtedly  imported  for  railway  purposes.  It 
is  unnecessary  for  me  to  enumerate  and  comment  upon  all  these 
sundries : those  who  may  wish  further  information  regarding 
them  will  find  full  details  in  the  Returns  of  the  Imperial  Maritime 
Customs,  and  I need  only  add  that  the  most  prominent  articles 
under  this  head  were  coal,  aniline  dyes,  flour,  machinery,  matches, 
kerosene  oil  (principally  American),  paper,  seaweed,  sugar  and 
wine. 

As  with  sundries,  so  with  treasure.  The  railways  have  to 
account  for  a very  large  increase  in  the  import  of  silver,  for  the 
price  of  land,  the  salaries  of  engineers  and  officials,  and  the 
wages  of  artisans,  military  guards  and  coolies  had  all  to  be  met 
by  treasure.  Of  the  total  sum  of  Haikwan  taels  9,684,414  or 
^1,457,706,  imported  in  1899,  probably  more  than  one  million 
pounds  sterling  were  absorbed  by  the  railways,  for  previous  to 
the  advent  of  the  latter  a sum  of  Haikwan  taels  3,000,000  was 
considered  a very  large  annual  import  through  Newchwang. 
Of  the  total  import,  which  consisted  of  dollars,  sycee  and  bars, 
over  nine  million  Haikwan  taels  came  from  Shanghai. 

Not  only  is  Manchuria  even  now  a large  consumer  of  foreign 
goods,  but  she  is  also  a fair  and  increasing  buyer  of  Chinese 


TRADE 


259 


produce  and  manufactures.  Her  purchases  of  the  latter  in- 
creased from  Haikwan  taels  4,41 5,564  or  ,£637, 037  in  1898  to 
Haikwan  taels  5,965,942  or  =£*897, 998  in  1899.  The  main 
articles  to  which  she  directed  her  attention,  in  addition  to  the 
cottons  and  yarn  mentioned  above,  were  brass  buttons  and  brass- 
ware,  cloth,  coal,  raw  cotton,  medicines,  wood  oil,  native  opium 
(not  likely  to  be  a regular  demand),  paper,  rice,  silk  piece  goods, 
sugar,  tea,  prepared  tobacco,  white  wax  and  wheat. 

The  flags  and  tonnage  engaged  in  the  carrying  of  the  above 
trade  in  1898-99  were  the  following : — 


1898. 

1899. 

Flag. 

Sailing. 

Steam. 

Total. 

Sailing. 

Steam. 

Total. 

o 

Z 

Tons. 

6 

Z 

Tons.j 

6 

Z 

| Tons. 

o 

Z 

Tons. 

d 

Z 

Tons. 

d 

Z 

Tons. 

British 

12 

6,523 

894 

156 

154,806 

168 

161,329 

12 

| 6,862 

173 

178,135 

185 

184,997 

German 

2 

52 

43,006 

54 

43,900 

2 

894 

47 

4X.037 

49 

41.931 

French 

— 

— 

I 

509 

1 

509 

— 

Dutch 

— 

— 

3 

2,466 

3 

2,466 

i 

Danish 
Swedish  and 

— 

2 

I,oi8 

2 

1,018 

— 

I - 

1 

2,489 

1 

2,489 

Norwegian 

— 

43 

32,472 

43 

32,472 





23 

20,274 

23 

20,274 

Russian 

— 

— 

4 

x>726 

4 

1,726 

— 

- 

1 i3 

8,137 

13 

8,137 

Japanese  . 

— 

— 

122 

100,956 

122 

100,956 

4 

! 3.432 

192 

169,119 

196 

172,551 

American  . 

4 

2,497 

— 

— 

4 

2,497 

2 

1,221 

1 

887 

3 

i 2,103 

Chinese 

— 

— 

85 

67,012 

85 

67,012 

2 

339 

no 

70,383 

112 

70,722 

Total  . 

18 

9,9i4 

468 

403,97x 

486 

413,885 

22 

12,748 

560 

490,461 

582 

503,209 

This  table  represents  the  number  and  tonnage  of  vessels  of 
foreign  type  which  visited  the  port  of  Newchwang  during  the 
above  years ; but,  as  all  these  vessels  likewise  cleared,  the  above 
numbers  and  tonnage  should  be  doubled,  that  is  to  say,  972 
and  1,164  vessels  of  827,770  and  1,006,418  tons  were  engaged 
in  the  import  and  export  trade  of  Newchwang  during  the  years 
1898  and  1899  respectively. 

These  steamers  also  brought  to  Newchwang  66,874  Chinese 


260 


MANCHURIA 


passengers,  principally  from  Chefoo  and  Tientsin,  for  railway 
and  agricultural  purposes,  and  carried  away  40,438. 

The  total  revenue  collected  by  the  Imperial  Maritime 
Customs  on  the  goods  earned  in  these  vessels  in  1899  was 
Haikwan  taels  928,739  (i?139,794)  against  Haikwan  taels 
634,237  (^91,502)  in  1898,  and  had  it  not  been  for  the  out- 
break of  bubonic  plague  in  Newchwang  last  summer,  of  which 
I have  already  spoken,  both  the  trade  and  revenue  of  1899 
would  have  been  very  much  greater. 

Up  to  the  present  in  discussing  the  trade  of  Manchuria 
I have  been  handling  well-authenticated  figures;  but  when 
we  come  to  consider  the  junk  trade  of  Newchwang  and  of  the 
Manchurian  seaboard,  and  try  to  arrive  at  an  estimate  of  its 
value,  we  are  met  with  the  absence  of  reliable  statistics,  or, 
indeed,  of  statistics  of  any  kind.  The  Commissioner  of  Cus- 
toms at  Newchwang,  in  his  Trade  Report  for  1899,  says : 
“Newchwang  is  one  of  the  ports  where  a large  junk  trade 
still  flourishes.  No  statistics  of  the  trade  exist,  but  rough 
estimates  may  be  made.  Inquiries  in  this  direction  show  that 
about  1,200  junks  from  other  provinces  in  China  arrived 
during  the  year,  and  that  the  value  of  the  cargoes  brought  and 
taken  away  by  them  amounted  to  not  far  short  of  20,000,000 
of  taels.”  A similar  attempt  was  made  to  estimate  the  value 
of  the  junk  trade  at  Newchwang  in  1891,  when  Mr.  A.  R. 
Agassiz,1  of  the  Imperial  Maritime  Customs,  computed  that 
1,662  junks,  of  a capacity  of  77,805  tons,  left  the  port  for 
Tientsin,  the  Shantung  province,  Shanghai,  Ningpo,  Foochow 
and  Amoy  during  that  year.  This  makes  the  average  capacity 
of  these  junks  less  than  fifty  tons.  If  we  apply  this  capacity  to 
the  1,200  junks  which  visited  Newchwang  in  1899  we  have  a total 
junk  tonnage  inward  and  outward  of  120,000  tons,  and  if  we 


The  Geographical  Journal  for  December,  1894. 


TRADE 


261 


divide  the  estimated  value  of  their  cargoes  by  this  tonnage  we 
arrive  at  a value  of  over  160  Haikwan  taels  per  ton.  But 
nearly  all  valuable  cargo  is  carried  by  steamer,  and  an  examina- 
tion of  the  Customs  Returns  will  show  that  the  average  value 
of  general  cargo  amounts  to  between  thirty  and  forty  Haikwan 
taels  per  ton.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  the  estimated 
junk  tonnage  is  far  too  low ; but  if  we  divide  the  20,000,000 
taels  by  40 — a high  value  per  ton  for  general  cargo — we  find 
that  the  2,400  junks  (inwards  and  outwards)  must  have  had  a 
total  carrying  capacity  of  500,000,  or  an  average  of  over  200 
tons  per  junk — which  is  manifestly  too  high.  No;  I consider 
that  even  ten  millions  of  Haikwan  taels  are  a very  liberal 
estimate  of  the  value  of  the  junk  traffic  through  Newchwang, 
and  that  twenty  million  taels  are  an  ample  allowance,  not  only 
for  Newchwang,  but  also  for  the  whole  of  the  Manchurian 
seaboard,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the  great  and  very 
valuable  lumber  trade  at  Ta-tung-k’ou,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Ya-lu  River.  I have  already  mentioned  the  export  trade  in  furs 
and  opium  from  Manchuria  to  the  northern  provinces  of  China, 
and  given  the  causes  of  the  decline  in  the  frontier  trade  with 
Corea ; but  no  statistics  of  either  trade  are  available.  In  the 
northern  province  of  Hei-lung-chiang  from  80,000  to  100,000 
head  of  cattle  are  reported  to  find  their  way  across  the  Amur 
every  year  from  Aigun  and  Helampo  to  Blagoveschensk  in  the 
Russian  province  of  the  Amur,  and  there  is  in  the  north-west  a 
frontier  trade  across  the  Argun  with  the  Trans-Baikal  province  ; 
but,  with  the  exception  of  firewood  for  the  use  of  steamers, 
there  is  practically  no  sign  of  trade  across  the  Amur  from 
Blagoveschensk  to  the  junction  of  the  Shilka  and  Argun  rivers. 
With  the  exception  of  the  few  gold-mining  camps  on  this  section 
of  the  river,  the  Manchurian  bank  of  the  Amur  is  wild  and 
devoid  of  population.  The  chief  trade,  however,  of  Manchuria 
with  Russia  is  between  the  Kirin  and  Primorsk  provinces.  From 


262 


MANCHURIA 


the  valleys  of  the  Sungari,  the  Nonni  and  the  Hu-lan  rivers 
large  quantities  of  wheat  are  shipped  to  Habarovsk,  the  seat 
of  the  Military  Governor-General  of  the  Trans-Baikal,  Amur 
and  Primorsk  provinces,  where  it  is  ground  into  flour  at  the 
numerous  windmills  dotted  round  the  town.  When  I passed 
through  Habarovsk  in  May  I was  told  that  a steam  flour  mill 
was  soon  to  be  erected  for  the  treatment  of  the  large  wheat 
import,  and  when  one  considers  the  extent  to  which  bread  enters 
into  the  Russian  diet  the  importance  of  Kirin  wheat  to  these 
Russian  provinces  where  agriculture  is  still  in  a very  backward 
condition  is  invaluable.  In  addition  to  this  wheat  trade  the 
Chinese  Eastern  Railway  Company  have  a fleet  of  fifteen  tugs 
and  three  passenger  steamers  engaged  in  towing  barges  of 
railway  plant  and  materials  up  the  Sungari  from  Iman  and 
Habarovsk  to  Harbin,  the  junction  of  the  Port  Arthur  and 
Vladivostock  Manchurian  lines. 

Such  is  a general  review  of  the  export  and  import  trade  of 
Manchuria,  sometimes  exact  and  sometimes  vague  in  details, 
and,  although  it  may  be  considered  presumptuous  on  my  part 
to  give  an  estimate  of  its  value,  I cannot  refrain  from  hazarding 
the  conjecture  that  we  are  face  to  face  with  a trade  whose 
annual  value  does  not  fall  short  of  fifteen  million  pounds 


APPENDIX  I 

METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS  RECORDED  AT  NEWCHWANG  DURING  THE  YEAR  FROM 
7th  SEPTEMBER,  1896,  TO  6th  SEPTEMBER,  1897 

SEPTEMBER,  1896. 


APPENDIX 


263 


Remarks. 

P.M.  showery. 

Thunder. 

Thunder. 

Thunder. 

Rain. 

Squally ; cloudy. 

•sjq  fz 
snoiASid 
avous  JO  uib>t 

P II ? 1 g I a ? 1 ? 1 II  ? I I 1 p II  I I 1 

Wind. 

s 

cC 

i: 

o\ 

Force. 

II  1 II  1 1 1 1 1!  I II  1 1 1 1 1 II  ! 1 1 

Direc- 

tions. 

# w 

w W W a ^ ^ ^ . 

£££c/5c/5Zc/3C/3&^££2ic/5£ic/3Z(yjc/5Z£££^ 

S 

< 

w 

u 

JC 

o\ 

Force. 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Direc- 

tions. 

^ . . . . ^ . . jy  . .... 

'Z  Z.  Z Z 'Z,  Z,  Z c/3  c/5  c/5  72  55  Z (A  W W Z,  c/5  </5  £ £ £ c/5  Z 

Hygrometer  in  Shade. 

2 

cu 

C/3 

h 

-G 

G\ 

Wet 

Bulb. 

lO  iO  lO  IT)  IT)  VO  lO 

rp  CO  ^ (N  m On  Cl  m m OnCOO  CO  to  to  V vooo  OO  Cl  i On 

VO  VO  vO  vO  nO  vO  tovO  vO  vO  tovO  vO  vO  *0  to  Tf  tOvO  to  tJ"  to  to  to 

Dry 

Bulb. 

i/)  if)  i/)  vo  l/)if)  iflioif) 

O O tv<b  V0\0  Tl-vo  M Tf  40  VO  vo  tv  O'  O "«  M NH  m VO  04  CO 
tv  tv  40  vOvO'O'O'O'OvOvO'OvO'O  <040  V040  40  40  vo  vo  <040 

s 

< 

co 

h 

04 

Dry  1 Wet 
Bulb.  Bulb. 

VO  vo  vo  VO  vo 

tv  00  CO  tJ-  vo  O O ^ ON  CO  O'  CO  « (N  40  40  COOO  « CO  VOOO  CO  ON 
40  40  40  40  40  40  40  40  <-040  1040  40  40  *0  VO  VO  N*-40  vo  vo  rT  VO  vo 

VO  vovo  vo  VO  VOVO  VO 

<N  CO  O 00  N<ONO  « 00  <000  tv  00  ON  « *0440  tv  O W CO  tv  « 

tv  tV  IWO  40  40  40  tv40  40  40  40  40  40  V040  <0  1040  40  40  VO  <040 

Thermometer 
in  Shade. 

s 

< 

CO 

XI 

04 

Min. 

lo  vo  to  io^o  io  totototototototo 

V’tVttH  o H H 00  Os  O b\tNt%COCoinioVoHvb  (N 
VO  VO  vO  vo  VO  UnVO  vO  vO  lo  loo  to  to  to  to  to  rp  to  tovO  ^ to  to 

Max. 

vo  vo  vo  vo  vo  vo  vo  VO  vo  JO  vovo 

00  00  0440  Tj-  rf  "o  <N  40  "on  CO  O vo  VO  CO  "3-00  V)-<b  V O « Vo 
tvtvtvtvtvtvtvtv  0x40  tv  tv  tv  tv  tv  tv 40  40  40  tv  tv  40  vo  tv 

Barometer. 

9 hrs. 

P.M. 

<3  4t -t  Tt  vo  N o 40  H 00  00  CO  40  On«  040  N 00  40  40  Tf  VOOO 
tv  tv  tv 40  co  "3-40  40  tv  tv  tv 00  00  tv 00  00  O O'  tv  tv  O O'  0400 

ONONONON040N04040N040N040N0404040  O'  O'  O'  O O'  O'  O' 
«MflMMINN(Sn(!inNMNMCI(OCIMncOCIM« 

g hrs. 

A.M. 

t)-  Tj-  ON  O'  O'  IN  O ONH  CO  vo  vo  N tv  M CO  tv  O'  Ot  « CO  40  vo  (N 
40  tv  tv  40  "3"  "3"  vo  1040  tv  40  00  O' 00  00  00  O' O tv  0400  O O'  0 

O'OnO'OnO'OnO'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'OnO'O  0404040  040 
«NiNci«««ei««n««ncici«cn««Nn«(o 

•qjuofli 

JO 

tv 00  O'  O H N (1)  <t  <040  tv 00  (JiO  H « Clt  1040  tv 00  O'  0 
MWHHHMHWHMOJCNN<N(NO)Ot«<NOtCO 

OCTOBER,  1896, 


264 


MANCHURIA 


a *2  Jc  .S  £ 'O  £ £ --.SJS  C 

o § .S^.^P.SP.S  .w  U)S  MW)  3 
l-  , ) ' C * C * C S.  *C  lT  3 ’ r * ^ j C2 

QupQCQm^cQmQttcQh 


MC  jg* 
£ 3 ' 

<U  o o 

> W 
O w 
1 O-  M 
O c: 


<0  CQ 


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3'cS 
Qoi 


a £ 

— c 

3 „ 

Qc* 


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snotAajd 
Moag  jo  uibh 


o [O 
£§ 
Q- 


I I l I I I I I ° I l I p I -8  I I l I l l pp  3- 1 II  i i 9 


1 1 1 -a 

□ 


I l4ll  I ! I I II  I 

Li 


i i -a  1 1 i 1 1 i 

j 


w ^ > 

^WW  .WW&dfcW  £w‘ 

co££^£&£wZ£(«co’fc&&c/5c»{fl£&c«c0a5</5£^c055c«&(n 


• M . bi)  . M . . 

i i iff  1 1 i i i|i 'i  i i i i ii  ||,i  i i HI i i i i 

j»  j w )j  13 


t)  c 

.3  o 

Q~ 


ro  mw  . . . ^ . 

^WWWWWWWW  'Uri  . 

i/5  £ & £ & £ 55  £ £ Z c/2  co  £ £ co  c/5  c/5  c/5  w5  £ £ W c/5  W £ c/5  £ £ c/5  & c/5 


LO  to  lO  CO  CO 


J3 

os  ! Q 3 
i wm 


SO  SO  SO  SO  so 


so  00  SO 


so  SO  SO  SO 


SO  SO  OJ  so  so  COSO  so  so 


H w 

S3 

o X 

Sco 
w z 


SO  so  so  so  SO  SO  00 

j SO  H Kh  CO  V LO  O)  vb  . _ _ . ---  _ _ 

Cn  tNSO  so  t>  SOSO  SO  SO  SO  SO  so  SO  sosO  so  SO  SO  CnsO  -sf  <OsO  SO  so 


so  Tj-  0)  so  ts  O,  O Os  so  M (N  tJ-  O H H o Os  so  CO  rj-  00  O NsO  CO 00  00  O so  CT 
t^OHOOOwOOOOMOsOHiOsO  Os  00  OwHOwOswOOsOOtii-i 


•qjuow 
jo  sXbq 


NOVEMBER,  1896, 


APPENDIX 


265 


Remarks. 

Wind  veered  to  N.  N.  W. 
[at  io’3o  A.M.,  strong. 

Fine;  bright. 

Fine ; bright. 

Fine ; bright. 

Fine ; bright. 

Fog,  evening. 

Fog,  morning ; foggy. 
Strong  wind,  evening. 
Rain  in  early  morn. 

Rain  in  evening. 

Strong  wind  overnight. 
Snow  a.m. 

Snow  A.M. 

Bright. 

•sjq  tz 
snoiASJd 
Mouq  jo  "niByr 

1 1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 p 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 “ 1 1 -s  1 1 P 1 

Wind. 

s 

cC 

V) 

•C 

on 

Force. 

1 1 44 1 1| ii 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ii  1 1 1 1 m 1 1 1 1 

u 

. .£  £ . . . 

c/5  co  £ 'Z  c/5  52  £ £ c/5  c/5  55  5?  c/5  c/3 £ £ c/5  & c/5  55  c/5  55  £ £ 2;  £ 55  c/5  £ c/5 

2 

< 

O 3 

V-. 

XJ 

os 

Force.  ; 

1 

Strong.  ! 
Strong. 

Light. 

Light. 

Strong. 

Strong. 

Direc- 

tions. 

c/5c/5c/5£c/5c/5c/5£c/5c/5££c/5c/5£!Zc/52;££c/5££c/5Z;z;£;c/5£c/5 

Hygrometer  in  Shade. 

2 

cu 

c/d 

In 

•C 

os 

Wet 

Bulb. 

JO  NO  JO  JO  JO  JO  00  H _N  JO  N 00  JO  00  H ts  00  00 

O' 00  CO  N N 00  NO  O ts  lOVD  ts  CO  ON  H O H tsrt>ob  On 00  NO  Voo  >ONO  "m  O 
^ -vf  CO  N ^-COCOCOCO'^-COCO'^-O-'^-^-Tj-CO^TMOCOCOCOCOw  H CON  CO 

Dry 

Bulb. 

lo  NO  JO  NO  JO  00  VO  NO  CO  H NO  M to 

T}-  w O CO  00  H ON  CO  CO  On  On  O VO  H rf  CO  CO  O VO  VO  N N 00  Co  O 00  00  CO  V 

lOVONtCOTj-Tj-COCO-^-TrcOTj-Tj-iOTj-Ti-rJ-O-rl-Tj-VOTj-^-COCOCI  H CON  CO 

2 

< 

CO 

t-t 

x: 

OS 

Wet 

Bulb. 

jots  JO  N JO  CO  N ON  JO  00  JH  JO  00 

00  O Csoo'o  N CO  O N COO  Ti-HNO  N 00  00  00  vococs'o  On  CO  M CO'O  CO  NOOO 
Tt-lO'tfOtO-t^-COCO't'tCO'tTr'ttOCOCOCOi-TfTCCOCOCON  H N N M 

On 

c 

is 

JO  JO  00  00  JON  JO  CO  JO  00  ts  M 00  H jvf  ON  On 

N CO  N *0  N H VO  Vf  io  io  CO  NO  VO  On  r(-  O CO  N 00  (ON  CON  tJ-oo  mD  <b  On 

LOLOiOrfCOvOTt-COCO'^-O-CO^-Tt-'^-^t-Tj-^COTj-iO^-^O-CON  M N N M 

Thermometer 
in  Shade. 

s' 

< 

m 

Ih 

J3 

on 

00  JO  JO  JO  JO  00  JO  JO  N 00  'P  00  JO  JO  JO  N N _On  _M  JO  JO 

OnOo  V NO  00  tN'O  ON  On  M N N NO  N rf  On  CO  ON  NO  On  CO  COMO  On  N V V tsCo  CO 
CO  ■Nj"  'T  CO  N COCON  N Tj-Tj-COCO^Tj-COCOCOCOCO'i-Tt-COCOCON  W H N M 

Max. 

00  JO  JO  JO  JO  JO  JO  CO  00  JO  JO  N JO  N O'  N N JH  N 00  00  ON 

NO  H N ON  ON  *N  0 COOO  VO  ts  uoCo  00  ts  NO00  00  Cs  ts  *0  CsF)  NO  N CO  ts  O CsvO 
VOVO  VO  VO  ^ NO  NOVO  ^io»OiOiO»OiONO>0>-ONr)LOU-)LOiou-)i0^1-COCOCON 

Barometer. 

g hrs. 

P.M. 

CON  N O Cs  N COM  CsNiOH  N CsvO  1 COOnh  On  t(-  O COCstNCONOO  ^00 
OOtsONNONOMTj-NMNNHMH  IooOmhOnOOOOnmNOmO 

OnOnOnOOnOOOOOOOOOOOO>OOOOnOOOOnOOOOO 
N N N CON  COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCON  CO  CO  CO  N CO  CO  CO  N COCOCOCOCO 

9 hrs. 

A.M. 

m ON  COOO  O vO  M H ts  NO  ts  COVO  no  to  N M On  tJ-  Cs 00  H ts  NOvO  On  rj-  rf 

O CsvO  ONOnOtTcONmNmhnmOnOONOOnmOOOmOON 

OOnOnOOOnOOOOOOOOOOOnOOOOOnOOOOOOOO 
CON  N COCON  COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCON  CO  CO  CO  CO  N COCOCOCOCOCOCOCO 

•qjuoj\[ 
jo  sAbq 

M N CO  xf  NO  NO  CsOO  On  O M N CO  xj-  NO  NO  tSOO  ON  0 H N CO  xf  nonO  tsOO  On  O 
hhmhhmmhmmNNNNNNNNNNCO 

DECEMBER,  1896 


266 


MANCHURIA 


Remarks. 

Fine  ; bright. 

Fine  ; bright. 

Hail ; showery. 

Fog  (heavy  all  day). 
Rain  P.M. 

Bright. 

Foggy  A.M. 

Bright.  [N.W. 

Dull ; wind  veered  to 

•sjq  tz 
snotAdJd 
Moug  JO  niE}j 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -s  1 •”  1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Wind. 

s 

cC 

C/3 

s: 

o\ 

Force. 

4,1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i4i4i  1 1 1 1 i4i  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

3 3 3 3 

Direc- 

tions. 

£ £ M W > W . £ . . £ 

£ £ Z £ c/3  W c/3  W in  W’  £ co  £ c/3  c/5  ‘Z  & & co  £ £ ^ co  c/3  c/3  £ c/3  £ 55  £ 

s 

■4 

h 

O' 

Force. 

. • ti  bi 

| ii ii ii 1 1 1 1 1 ii 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ii i ii  i 

J J m m 

Direc- 

tions. 

wwjziw  w 

Hygrometer  in  Shade. 

s 

cC 

in 

u 

JC 

Wet 

Bulb. 

jo  jo  jo  oo  _d  yioo  co  Ov  jo  oo  in  in  jo 

tob)  Cn  O'  CO  IN 00  d CO  Hi  CO  tNMD  *tO  b)  h tOOO  O' 00  00  00  tN  'tOOO  w CO  CO  In 

d H w N H H N totontow  Cl  (OM  H H M hhCI«CICI«hhh 

Dry 

Bulb. 

(M  JO  JO  JO  JO  JO  .tN  JO  Cl  JO  d IN  JO  03  O'  JO  00  d 

IN 00  oo  O Tj-oo  O "4-  lO  H CO 00  O OO  tN  Tj-b>  O H O O O'  O tN  O CO  lO  Tj-\0  O'  O' 

dHMWdHddCO  CO  CO  CO  CO  Cl  CO  dHdCOHHHfddCOdddHHW 

g hrs.  a.m. 

Wet 

Bulb. 

1 M M JON  00  JOOO  JN  JO  JO  H JO  JO  Cl  JO  JO  Cl  JO  JH  JO 

CO  O O O'  N Cl  IN  w CO  O Cl  IN 00  to  H Tj-vO  Tj-vO  "o  io  lo  ’d  VO  IN  0"0  VO  VO  Cn 00 

d Cl  n H d H Cl  COCOIOIOM  M (OH  H H Cl  H HdddNCINHHH 

Dry 

Bulb. 

h jo  jo  oo  jo  jo  h jo  jo  io  jo  jo  jr>  co  jo  « ci  jo  d 

tO  Cl  Tj-  H O'  CO  O'  VvO  O « OO  Cl  O'  Vf  O' 00  \0  O'  CO  tN  Vn  to  tNCO  d 00  tN  O'  M *>H 

dddHHdHdOCOCOCOCOdCOdHHdH  HdddCOddHdd 

Thermometer 
in  Shade. 

s 

< 

C/3 

M 

.C 

Min. 

JO  Cl  jo  JO  JO  JO  Cl  Cl  Cl  JO  d JO  CO  00  jo  d JO  _d  d Cl  00  JO  M d 

"d  O'  CO  O' 00  b>  M N -tO  b d O'  V tN  o 'O  co  b CO  >0  h CnOO  m Cn  O CO  d 0 >-0 
dMH  WMMdCOCOCOdddCOMMHM  HWMddddMWM 

Max. 

JO  JOOO  d O'  O' JO  JO  JOOO  00  JO  JO  JO  JOOO  JO  JO  JO  JO  JO  O'  O' P'00  O' 

co  Vo  "o  h d oo  io  Vj-b)  b>  co oo  "co  Vh  O'  O'  O'  O'  *4-  tN  "o  tNOO  cob)  b>  b»  co  o to 
CO  -cr  CO  CO  d d COCOCOTj-COCOTj-Tj-Tj-cOd  d d COM  d d cocococococococo 

Barometer. 

g hrs. 

P.M. 

d to  tN  to  to  O'  Tj-to  Tj-  to  Tj-oo  m oo  VO  O'  d v0  co  00  vovOdOvOvOOwtNto 

dTj-HCOHCOCOCOdddMH  CO  00  w Tj-  CO  CO  to  CO  Cl  d d CO  d O'  O d M CO 

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO'OOOOOOOOOOOO'OOOO 
COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOd  COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOd  COCOCOCO 

9 hrs. 
A.M. 

h CnvO  tNOO  CO  to  H d O'VO  Cn  COvO  O d CO  to  CO  O COOO  O' O d Tj-  O'VO  tovO  co 
H Tj-  d CO  d d -4-  Tj-  CO  d d H d COM  O'  Tj-  Tj-  CO  to  to  d d d CO  d M 00  H H d 

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO'OOOOOOOOOOOO'OOO 
COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOd  COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOd  COCOCO 

•qjuojv 
jo  s/Cbq 

H d CO  Tj-  tovO  tNOO  O'  O H d CO  Tj-  tovO  tNOO  O'  O CT  Cl  CO  Tj-  to  to  tNOO  O'  O H 
HHMHWWMHWWdddddddddd  CO  CO 

JANUARY,  1897 


APPENDIX 


267 


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m mfflQ 


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Moug  jo  aiBy 


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\p  JO  O'  tt  JO-p  CO  O'  JO  « O'  Tf  H w JO  JO  CO  O'  O'  JO  M O'  <N  CO  w (N  H JN  CO 

Vo  Koo  'O'b  o Od  *m  V V co  'o>  o Tf  io  Vs  Vs  V W * "h  >b  O'  « "<n  Vt-oo  * h Vs 

CO  CO  CO  ^ CO  (N  CO  CO  CO  <N  COO)  H 0)  0)  (N  M CM  CO  CO  h « CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO 


o M'OOO'O  O vO  o COO  H'O  NCOS  O'^COO'N  COvO  <N  O' 00  ts.'O  m O'  >0 

'tCOW«0>«ClHCIOCOtOCI«««COCOHHNCO't'tMOOOCI«HH 


! as 

O' 


•qiaojv 

jo  sXeq 


FEBRUARY,  1897 


268 


MANCHURIA 


Remarks. 

Snowy. 

Dust  Storm. 

Fine  ' 

Fine 

Fine  Beautiful 
Fine  weather. 

Fine 

Fine 

Dull ; threatened  snow. 

•siq  fz 
snoiASjd 
Mong  jo 

•8'i  i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i ii 

Wind. 

s' 

eu 

m 

•C 

O' 

Force. 

1 1 1 II  1 1 1 l -EM-aii!  1 1 1 1 1,11,1 

3 3 3 3 13  3 3 3 33 

Direc- 

tions. 

. w ^ ^ . . . . N . 

W . WW 

< 

w 

JC 

Force. 

Strong. 

Light. 

Strong. 

Light. 

Light. 

Light. 

Light. 

Light. 

Light. 

Light. 

Light. 

li 

Q~ 

1 

W WWW 

w 55 w"  ^ _w w 5z 55 55 w w 

£ </5  £ £ £ W’  c/5  W & £ 55  c/5  c/5  c/5  £ £ £ 55  c/5  c/5  c/5  c/5  c/5  c/5  55  c/5  £ 

Hygrometer  in  Shade. 

Cm‘ 

00 

In 

JC 

cn 

Wet 

Bulb. 

p\oo  jo  h cm  oo  yn  yi  oo  w h o^p  ai  yi  h jo  m 

iflH  CM  toVo  LO  CM  V 0"0  00  CM  Vx  h COvO  i i OO  N O'  K'i)  M M 

MM  HHNSHMtlOlflNC(ClfO«NCinCI 

Dry 

Bulb. 

JO  IN  JO  CM  CM  JO  H no  « H oo  U)  oo  JO  H CM  CM  _M 

o V>b  co  h »o  io  w vb  VOd  h oo  o V o b n o>  Vx  r>  o bo  h ’o  on  co  no 

h h mCMCMCOhCMCMCMCMCMCMCOCOCOCOCMCOCM 

s 

< 

£2 

X! 

o> 

Wet 

Bulb. 

yo  JO  M JO  JO  JO  00  JO  00  CO  Cl  00  m (N  IN  JO  JO 

*m  Tj-00  ion  CO  Cx  Cx  tx  COM3  'i-OO  Vx  On  *m  Cx  O CO  Vvb  O CM  CO  >000  M O 

ci  HMdHHHMoinM  cocococi  « con 

Dry 

Bulb. 

CO  JO  JO  00  JO  IN  00  JO  JO  JO  CM  JO  00  JO  H 

CM  NOON  tN  <N  Tj-  O' CO  b Vts  >0  O O M Vo  CM  NOVO  O'  H NO  NO  O'  O'  ■’t'O 

CM  hCMCOCMmCMOMCMCMCMCOCOCOOMCMCOCM 

h a 

a Q 
s < 

O X 
SO) 

g5 

H 

b] 

2 

O 

< 

CQ 

s 

•< 

09 

u 

js 

o> 

Min. 

CO  CO  JO  JO  00  JO  NO  JO  CO  ONNp  00  00  JO  JO  00  CO  jo 

CM  "o  CO  * CM  iOM-mmiOOM-O'ChIO  -h'b  00  NO  O M NO  CO  00  o 

CM  h S Cl  MMHMMCMCOCO<NC1<M<M 

Max. 

00  00  H ON  JO  00  ON  Cl  00  M 00  00  00  00  JO  00  H p JO  w 

IN  CM  no  On  V CM  CM  00  CM  CO  O *M  co  no  V)  tx  CM  »0  H CO  iobl  *tx  >0  NO  O NO  ON 

CO  CM  H H H H M CM  CM  H CM  CM  CO  CO  CO  CM  COCOTfTj-rJ-^-J-O-Tr-l-T}--^- 

2 s 

00  O H tx  H NO  CM  o O'  CM  CO  tx  M CM  CM  CM  O CM  O Cx  NO  On  tJ-  CO  H CM  VO  O 
CM  CM  H H COrt-CO'^-COCOTt-COCOCM  NOVO  vMOCM  NOOhhOOCO 

oooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 

COCOCOCOCO<OCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO<OCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO<0 

9 hrs. 

A.M. 

O'  H H H CM  w 00  COM  tx  NO  ON  CM  W rJ-Tl-CMVOVO  OlO  NOUNO  NOM-H  h 
H COM  H CM  -'J-COO-Tj-COCOCOCOCOCO  Mj-vO  loCOCMCOhOOhhOCO 

oooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 

COCOCOCOCO<OCOCOCO<OCOCOCOCO<OCOCOCO<OCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO 

•qjuo^ 
jo  sXbq 

H -CM  CO  Tj-  NOVO  tx 00  On  o H CM  CO  NOVO  1x00  O'  O H CM  CO 't-  no<0  txOO 

mmmmmmmmmmCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCM 

MARCH,  1897 


APPENDIX 


269 


Remarks. 

Snowy. 

[sleet. 

Slight  fog ; snow  and 

Cloudy ; strong  wind 
[overnight. 

Sleet  and  rain  overnight. 
River  opened  P.  M. 

First  steamer  arrived. 

Threatened  snow  a.m. 

Rain  P.M. 

Dull. 

Dull. 

Bright. 

Bright. 

•siq  Vz 
snoiAaid 
MOUS  JO  UtB>T 

1 1 ! i5  1 $ 1 li  1 1 1 1 1 -S  1 1 1 1 1 1 p 1 II  2 1 1 1 1 1 

Wind. 

s 

cC 

(A 

43 

Force. 

Light. 

Calm. 

Calm. 

Strong. 

Calm. 

Light. 

Light. 

Direc- 

tions. 

w a h 

£c/2c/2£c/2c/2££&££Wc/2c/2£c/2££££^W££££!zl55c/5^W 

< 

co 

u 

43 

G\ 

Force. 

Strong. 

Light. 

Strong. 

Calm. 

Calm. 

Calm. 

Strong. 

Light. 

Strong. 

Calm. 

Strong. 

Strong. 

Light. 

Light. 

Light. 

Light. 

Light. 

Light. 

Direc- 

tions. 

£ 

£ 'Z  t/j  £ £ c/5  £ £ ^ £ 'Z  c/3  c/3  c/5  'z,  c/3  £ 'Z  £ c/5  W £ £ W £ £ ’Z,  co  £ 5? 

Hygrometer  in  Shade. 

(C 

(A 

43 
0\  1 

Wet 

Bulb. 

co  oo  yoo  oo  oo  oo  oo  p\oo  y on  y y y y _N  y y 

Vi-  NO  W NO  On  CO  W NO  NO  "o  O VO  M On  Vs  o co  W CO  00  H ON  NOMD  tv  tv  "h  tvvb  ON 
H W COW  W COCOCOW  W (N  W W COW  W COW  W W W COW  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO 

Dry 

Bulb. 

On  oo  y y oo  oo  w w y tv  co  co  h oo  w h m y 

tvOO  Tt-00  CO  CO  no  NO  O H NO  Vf  o 'cfH  H PI  00  b N CO  CO  CO  a O ON  ON  Von  w CO 
H W COW  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  W W CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  W W W COCOCOCOrt-COCOTj-COTfrf 

S 

< 

C/2 

tH 

a* 

Wet 

Bulb. 

« On  y _w  y h y y h on  y w y y ootv  w h y oo  w w on  oo 

Vsw  tv  ON  W Vf  V LOOO  On  On  W O Vf  00  h W CO  CO  no  W "o  CO  no  "tv  no  On  CO  tv  00 

H M COW  W COCOCOW  W H H W COCOW  COW  W W W COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO 

Dry 

Bulb. 

w h y h w w w jv  y y y y tv  w -t  h on  y y y h h m 

Vs  O VfCO  wb  io  NO  00  W "w  W no  Vf  NO  W VfNO  COM  h no  Vf  vO  00  O n£>  H w W Vf 

H W COW  COCOCOCOW  COW  W W COCOCOCOW  W W COCOCOCOCO''fCO-f-'f-fsf 

Thermometer 
in  Shade. 

S 

< 

w 

43 

CTt 

Min. 

yoo  on  y oo  co  y p not  oo  w oo  y oo  y co  oo  ;f  co  y on 

W H Vs  Vs  CO  W CO  W "tv  tv  On  nO  On  00  COMO  00  00  tO  h h Vh  no  no  V Vf  On  Vf  <o 

hhWWWCOCOCOWWmmhWCOWWWWWWCOWCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO 

Max. 

w h h w y*-  oo  oo  oo  p-  w co  yoo  co  coy  on  on  y w On  m oo  co  y 

"nOnO  W VsOO  V.  CO  CO  w io  NO  M W NO  W ON  W W ■'tf-'O  no  'f  W tv  0 H tv  On  ^00  tT 

COW  COTTCOTfT^-Tl-Tl-rO^-COCOCO'^-COrtTt-cOCOCOTr-J-^-iONO^COiOTfNO 

Barometer. 

Is 

ON  W On  NO  ON  00  W no  tv  O tv  00  O rj- N no  i- no  CO  W W 0 t|-  CO  O -t  W On  O tv 

COO  On  W CO  ON  O h W W nonow  h h W CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  no  Nf  CO  W h m Onm  O 

OOOnOOOnOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOnOO 
COCOW  COCOW  COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOW  COCO 

9 hrs. 

A.M. 

WOO  On  On  nI-  h NO  woo  >Oh  W COO  NO  NO  t+no  tv  OnnO  W W 0 NO  tv  CO  rf  two 
■Nl-W  ONONTi-W  ONH  W W Tj-NO  t)-  W On  CO  W nJ- CO  CO  CO  CO  no  no  ^ W h h o O h 

OOOnOnOOOnOOOOOOOOnOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 
COCOW  W COCOW  COCOCOCOCOCOCOW  COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO 

•qjuojq 
JO  S^BQ 

h N CO  ^ NOVO  tv  00  ON  O H W CO  Tt"  NO  NO  tv  00  On  O h W CO  ^ »ONO  tv  00  On  O h 
HMMMHMMHMHWWWWWWWWWWCOCO 

APRIL,  1897 


270 


MANCHURIA 


MAY,  1897 


APPENDIX 


271 


Remarks. 

[over  night. 
Wind  veered  to  N.E. 

[wind  & rain  to  noon. 
Wind  to  N.  W.  9 '30  A.  M. ; 

Cloudy. 

Rain  P.M. 

Thunder ; rain. 

[p.M.  ; rain, 
[rain  ; thunder  squall 
Dull  A.M.  ; threatened 
Rain. 

Thunder ; rain. 

Thunder ; rain. 

Thunder  and  rain. 

•saq 

snoiAajd 
MOUg  JO  UlB^J 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ° II  1 1 1 " 1 II  " 1 1 ! p 1 1 1 1 ° -8  II 

Wind. 

2 

cC 

M 

l- 

J2 

On 

Force. 

Light. 

Light. 

Strong. 

Strong. 

Light. 

Light. 

Strong. 

Direc- 

tions. 

. *•  o5  ^ ^ N ^ W 

cococo73££cocoio<z5co£;>££cocococfl£co££^c/5cflco£;!z;<Z}co 

s 

< 

w 

h 

x: 

on 

Force. 

Strong. 

Strong. 

Strong. 

Light. 

Light. 

Light. 

Strong. 

Light. 

Light. 

Light. 

Strong. 

Direc- 

tions. 

S.W. 

S.W. 

S.W. 

S.W. 

N.E. 

E. 

S.W. 

W. 

S.W. 

S.S.W. 

S.W. 

w.s.w. 

N.E. 

W.N.W. 

N.E. 

E.N.E. 

S.W. 

S.W. 

w. 

N.N.W. 

W.S.W. 

S.W. 

N.E. 

N.N.W. 

S.W. 

S.W. 

S.W. 

S.E. 

S.W. 

N.W. 

S. 

Hygrometer  in  Shade. 

S 

cC 

OB 

1-4 

X 

ON 

Wet 

Bulb. 

CM  JO  JO  NH  p>  00  JO  JO  H oo  CO  tx  Jx  JO  <M  CO  JH  O'  JH 

CM  CO 00  H O' 00  O'  to  V O C-s  CO  CO  CM  CO  Vs  "rj-  ">000  00  MO  00  O' 00  <0  tovO  V»CO 

lO'OlO'O-rJ-LOTj-^f'^-'-O  tovO  >01010101010101010>0101010>010>OI01010 

Dry 

Bulb. 

M JO  CM  JO  CM  CM  H JO  JO  H (N  ^ H JO  CO  JO  CM  CO  JH  CM  JO 

O O CO  >0  LO  CxOO  MOO  Cx  M VO  CO  to  CM  O'  CO  CO  CO  M MD  COM  to  00  o Vs  tx  H Tj-  CO 
VO  vO  VO  vO  to  to  to  to  to  tJ-V£3  vO  VO  tovO  to  MO  vO'O'O'O'O'O'O'O  tx  to  to  VO  VO  to 

s 

< 

CO 

u 

XI 

ON 

Wet 

Bulb. 

00  O'  CM  JO  JO  00  JN  JH  00  JO  M3  00  to  JO  JO  00  JO  M3  JO  O'  JO 

CO  CM  M3  O' to  O oo  M Cs  O'  CO  N O'  O io  CO  0"0  O'  Cxvb  00  to  to  00  O 00  to  to 00  00 

lOlOlOtOM-iO't>0'tM->OlO  to  M3  totO'J-'OlO'OtoiOtO'O  IOVO  to  to  IO  to  to 

Dry 

Bulb. 

to  jo  CM  CO  JO  O'  CO  JH  {X  CM  JH  JO  00  tx  JO  CM  JO  « (OH 

CM  CO  Cx  O'  O'  O 00  VO  "to  00  O'  CM  CO  tooo  CM  CO  CO  Ti-vO  CO  00  Vs  CM  M3  O "tf-  H CM  MD  M 
M3  vO  M3  M3  ■^•'O  to  to  IO  to  totO  tO  tO  to  >0  VO  vO  tO  M3  vO  vO  to  M3  vO  CxM3  M3  M3  M3  tx 

Thermometer 
in  Shade. 

s 

< 

CO 

£ 

O) 

Min. 

P'00  to  O'  CO  CM  JO  O'  P'00  CM  0"O  JO  CM  00  CM  JO  Tf  CO  O'  CO  O'  JO  O' 

VO  CO  O'  Vm3  V>  CM  Vs  CO  CM  O'  Vs  Vs  *m  O O CM  CM  O'  CM  CO  Vs  Voo  CO  O CM  O'  (X  to  O 
lOlOtO^-iOTj-lOrt-iOtOtOiOiOtOlOtOtOiOiO  tovo  to  to  to  M3  VO  to  to  lo  IOVO 

Max. 

JO  JO 00  00  JO  JO  CM  CM  JO  JNOO  JO  CM  O'  J3s  CM  CM  CO  CO  JO  JO  C0>0 

Cx  CM  M3  CO  O'  N CO  Vf  CO  CM  vb  V CM  V*  h 00  >000  CM  w CM  CO  to  M3  Vs  IO  t)-  to  M3  CO  H 
VO  Cs  N N totO  VO  tovO  M3  VO  S tXM3  tXVO  vO  vO  Cs  N N CxM3  Cx  Cx  CxvO  M3  M3  tx  tx 

Barometer. 

g hrs. 

P.M. 

wOOCMVOrf-OOOO'HCMCMOvOMCMOO'  CxOO  O 00  <0  O M3  COM3  VO  vO  O'  O' 
CXM3  to  Cj-00  (XM3  00  00  00  txOO  00  OO  00  OO  M3  to  Tf  IOM3  rJ-vO  CxvO  VO  to  CM  CO  to  VO 

OnOnOnQ^^OnOnOnOnQ'OnOnOn^O'OnOn^OnOnOnOnOn^OnOnOnOnOnOnOn 

OCICICINCIOICICINOICICINNOIOOICICICINCIOIOIOINNNNW 

9 hrs. 

A.M. 

H tv  CM  w to  M3  00  CO  O CM  VO  ^00  CO  O'  CM  O H 00  CO  H M3  O'  tx  w O' VO  to  H CM  CO 
00  M)  vO  tOOO  00  vO  VO  O'  O'  CxOO  00  00  N O'  txM3  to  tJ-  Cs  to  to  Cs  CxvO  to  Tf  CM  to  to 

O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O 'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O' 
CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCM 

•q?uoj\[ 
jo  sXeq 

m CM  CO  tJ“  tOvO  CXCO  O'  O w CM  CO  IOVO  CxOO  O'  O H CM  CO  Tf  to  M3  CxOO  O'  O w 

hhhhmmmhhhCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCOCO 

JUNE,  1897 


*272 


MANCHURIA 


Remarks. 

Rain. 

Thunder  and  Rain. 

Dull  A.M.  ; rain  p.m. 

[hail  over  night, 
[thunder ; rain  and 
Showers  A.M.  ; heavy 

Drops  of  rain. 

[rain. 

Thunder  ; few  drops 
[A.M. 

Few  drops  of  rain  n 

•sjq  fz 
snotAdid 
moqs  jo  aiB^j 

? | S'  | p | | | | S’  | | | K | | | | | | | | | I M 1 1 1 1 

Wind. 

s 

cu 

OB 

1-4 

JC 

o\ 

Force. 

111111111111111111111,111111111 
U U J 

Direc- 

tions. 

S.S.E. 

W.S.W. 

S.W. 

W.S.W. 

N.E. 

N.E. 

S. 

s.w. 

s.w. 

s. 

W.S.W. 

W.S.W. 

s.w. 

N.E. 

W. 

W.S.W. 

N.N.W. 

W.N.W. 

W.S.W. 

s.w. 

N. 

S.W. 

S.W. 

S.E. 

W.S.W. 

W.S.W. 

W.S.W. 

s.w. 

s.w. 

W.S.W. 

s 

< 

to 

on 

Force. 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 III  1 1 1 1 1 II  1 II  1 1 1 1 II  1 1 
u u 

Direc- 

tions. 

. . & 

C/7C/5^77^^C/5Zc/5(/5^(yj!/5c/7^C/3C/5c/j^iy3C/7C/2C/373C/3^C/3(/5c/jc/3 

Hygrometer  in  Shade. 

s 

cC 

e/5 

U. 

,c 

os 

Wet 

Bulb. 

M JO  p JO 00  OnOO  JO  CO  ON  CO  JO  JO  H 00  p JO  JO  ON  JO  JO 

COCOION  Cl  CO  O ioVo^M  VfNO  'coOd  Vj-  ON  ON00  00  w t*-  O »0  On  CO  00  lO  tsOO 
nOnOnOnOnOnOnOnOno  *OnO  nOnonOnOnon0n0n0n0  ts  Csno  no  no  nO  no  no  no 

Dry 

Bulb. 

« « JO  JO  CO  JO  JO  JO  H p 00  JO  JO  NO  H JO  M 

ON  NO  Cs  Cs  Vs  O 00  01  NO  T)-  CO  00  H On  H "(M  nO  V h V)  OO  00  il  VO  Va-  CO  CO  CO  V CO 

NO  NO  NO  NO  no  CsnO  ts.NO  NO  NO  NO  CsNO  CsCsCsCsCsCsCsCsCsCsCsCsCsCstsCs 

s 

< 

CO 

k 

J3 

on 

Wet 

Bulb. 

(N  JO  00  M pN  JO  H CO  JO  JO  JO  p JO  JOOO  JOH  jo  CO  ON  JO  no  ts 

CO  NO  O SO  CO  <N  NON  M 01  Tf  tJ-  NO  NO  Cs  ON  O'  01  ON 00  00  00  00  Vs  Cs  >0  NO 

nOnOnonOnOnOnOnOnOnOnOnOnOnOnOnOnOnOnOnO  Csno  'O'O'OnO'O'O'O'O 

Dry 

Bulb. 

m JO  H JO  JO  COO)  JO  JO  Os  Cs  01  K JO  H JO  p 

O ON  01  NO  O M CO  NO  CO  NO  NO  00  O ON  -t  tsOO  CO  Vf  On  ts  OnnO  *OnO  Vo  iovb 

tsNO  NO  Cs  Cs  Cs  Cs  ts  tsNO  NO  NO  CststsCststststsCststststsCstsCststs 

Thermometer 
in  Shade. 

S 

•< 

.C 

-| 

Min. 

p JO  On  « JOOO  JO  01  pN  On  CO  CO  On  ts  ON  On  JO  JO  ^ m JO  «D 

CO  O NO  O M CO  CO 00  CO  W CO  NO  01  Vj-  CO  On  On  0"b  no  On  On  h m Cs  tsNO  Cs  H Cs 
nOnO'O'O'O'OnO'O'O'OnOnOnO'OnONO'O'O'O'OnO'O  Cs  CsnO  nO  nO  nO  CsNO 

Max. 

00  JO  pN  00  JO00  JO  -a-  d JO  JO  M 00  p 

NO 00  00  Vs  Cs  On  00  V NO  HI  m W "«  00  CO  Cs  H CO  tC  O t}-  co  CO  m h CO  O O W 

Csno  no  ts  Cs  Cs  tSOO  Cs  Cs  Cs  ts  ts  Cs  tsco  00  00  00  00  On  00  OOOOCOOOCOOOOOOO 

Barometer. 

9 hrs. 

P.M. 

Cs  no  On  (M  On  Cs  w NO  NO  CO  tJ-00  <M  no  O m On*OOn^-moooOnO  O <M  M O no  ts 
-1-  CO  CO  -Nj-  non O Csno  Csno  LOTl--i-cO^-H}-c0^cfcOCO(N  CM  CO  NO  no  no  no  -3- 

On  On  On  On  On  On  On  On  On  On  On  On  On  On  On  On  On  On  O'  On  On  On  On  On  On  On  On  O'  On  O' 

«<MtN(NieiClCl<N<M<NPl(MClC'l(NM(NOICI(N(NW<N<N(NCl<N(MCl(N 

9 hrs. 

A.M. 

NT)  NO  NO  CO  ID  Cl  00  o ts  h Cs  CO  NO  ^00  IsnO  ts  no  O O -Nj-MNO  ON  CO  00  no  O O 
NO  rf  Th  CO  NO  Csno  CsNO  CsNONO^C-'a-CO-a-Hj-Tt-iONO-a-COCOCOTCNOiONONONO 

OnO'*OnOxG'OnOnOnO>0\OnO,'0'G'O^OnOnGnO>*C'0>*OnO\0,\OnONO^O*0'^ 

•qjnow 
jo  sAbq 

w d CO  rj-  NO  NO  CsOO  On  0 H Cl  CO  -fr-  NO  NO  Csoo  On  O h Cl  CO  tT  nonO  tsOO  O'  O 
HHHHHHHHHHClCICICtCICICINCiaiO 

JULY,  1897 


APPENDIX 


273 


Remarks. 

Thunder. 

Rain. 

Heavy  rain. 

Rain. 

Rain  over  night. 

Gale  A.M.,  with  rain. 

Rain,  evening. 

Blow  P.M.,  with  shower. 

Shower  and  thunder. 
Rain. 

Rain. 

Two  showers. 

Rain. 

■siq  frz 
snoiAajd 
MOUS  10  aiB>T 

M O O'*  N fO  CO  M H 00  00  M N 

1 1 1 1 1 1 -w  1 1 1 1 1^  | P-«|  PP  | | | | | | PP"PP.^ 

Wind. 

£ 

tC 

00 

JC 

Ch 

Force. 

Calm. 

Strong. 

~~ 

Calm. 

Direc- 

tions. 

W. 

W.S.W. 

S.W. 

W.S.W. 

W.S.W. 

W.S.W. 

S.E. 

S.W. 

S. 

S.W. 

S.W. 

E.N.E. 

S.W. 

W. 

S.W. 

N. 

N. 

W.S.W. 

N.W. 

N.W. 

S.W. 

w. 

S.W. 

S.W. 

N.W. 

S.E. 

E.N.E. 

E. 

S. 

E. 

£ 

< 

to 

•G 

G\ 

Force. 

1 1 1 il  II  1 1 1 | 1 1 1 1 II  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Direc- 

tions. 

£ £ & « 

^2^  -2^»  W 

«/5^coe/!3!>coZc/3c/3Wa3coa3Wc/}Z^c/3>e/3cdW^aiiainWWc«eoc/5 

Hygrometer  in  Shade. 

£ 

cu 

e/3 

U 

M 

os 

Wet 

Bulb. 

o°  cn  h jo  yn  ynoo  yn\p  yn  yn  yt  <n  jooi  cn  jojn  jo  jo 

00  o M CN  CO  Cn  O n M H '-t  M i two  Cn  O fONO  Tf  <-OvO  CN  V V H CN  CN  M U-) 

vO  NNS  two  CnCnCnCnCnCnCnCn  CnvO  Cn  CnvO  CnCnCnCnCnCnCnCnCnCnCnCn 

Dry 

Bulb. 

jo  to  jo  <m  h <m  oo  w jo  vp  jo  pv  jo  h cn  jo 

io  0.00  Cn  Vf  CO  lOOO  (OH  CO  O'  O'  O O *000  >O00  Ov  O Ov  O 00  Ov  V CO  CnvO  m 
Cn  Cn  Cn  Cn  Cn  Cn  Cn  Cn  Cn  CnOO  Cn  Cn  CnOO  Cn  Cn  Cn  Cn  Cn  CnOO  CnOO  Cn  Cn  Cn  Cn  Cn  CnOO 

s 

< 

to 

£ 

Ov 

Wet 

Bulb. 

yn  yt  pwp  oo  jo  co  co  co cn  jo 

VO  CnOv’o  COOiO  O vfCOCOioio'tiOiDNH  O Cn  CO  V-O  Cn  O O ioVmvo’cocO 
VO  VO  vO  Cn  CnvO  CnCnCnCnCnCnCnCnCn  CnvO  Cn  CnvO  CnCnCnInCnCnCnCnCnCnCn 

Dry 

Bulb. 

jooo  h h yn  vo  co  jd-ro  cn  00  jo  jo  vp  jo  jo  yn  yn 

CnOO  Ov  O Ov  O VO  Cn  ON  O w hi  00  Cn  O Ov  CN  CnOO  CnOO  CO  CN  "hi  O "<N  On  CO  O 00  "o 

Cn  Cn  CnOO  CnOO  Cn  CnOO  00  00  00  Cn  CnOO  Cn  Cn  Cn  Cn  Cn  CnOO  00  00  00  00  Cn  CnOO  CnOO 

Thermometer 
in  Shade. 

s 

< 

GO 

rC 

Min. 

yf  CO  vp  JOOO  04  CN  JO  JO  00  CO  CO  JO  JO  CN  JO  JO  JO  JO 

OV  Ov  <N  M rt-^hCOCI  CN  CO  Cn  O ON  *d-  rf  vovb  VO  vb  H CO  CO  CO  CO  lo  >0  ON  CO  >0  "w  CN 

vO  VO  Cn  Cn  CnvO  CnCnCnCnCnCnCnCn  CnvO  vO  vO  vo  CnCnCnCnCnCnCnCnCnCnCnCn 

Max. 

CO  VO  JO  00  CN  OV  CN  CO  H 00  JO  JO  JO 

CN  CO  CO  vf  rt-  io  O H O iOh  hi  VO  VO  CO  00  CN  H CO  Vf  Ov  -d-vo  CO  Cn  tJ-  lOCN  CN  vb 

00  00  00  00  00  00  CnOO  00000000000000  Cn  CnOO  OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOoO  CnOO  00  00 

Barometer. 

9 hrs. 

P.M. 

Cn  CN  tJ"  vo  Cn  O Ov  CN  UOOO  00  COOO  CN  Ov  CO 00  rf  COVO  H VO  O tJ-00  lO  CN  00  CO  O CN 
^t-VOTf-Tt-TtLOTj-Tj-COCN  H o CN  CN  H CO  CN  CN  CN  COTt-cO-vJ-COCOCOTj-^-Tj-vOCO 

Q\  (T\  Q\  Q\  Q\  Os  Q\  Q\  (J\  Q\  (J\  Q\  (J\  Q\  Q\  (J\  Q\  Os  Q\  Q\  Os  (Js 

(N(NWWWCJOINCSW(NWWWW«W(N(N<NW(NW<N(N(NCJO<W(N(N 

9 hrs. 

A.M. 

Ov  HI  00  Cn  Ov  n-  o O vo  Cn  ^-00  hi  CN  Cn  Ov  CN  -d-vO  d-NCNHHCNOOOCN  VOOO  Th 
'd-iOrf-^-'d-'d-vOLOCOCN  CN  w CN  CO  CN  O rf  CO  CN  PO'd-'d-TfTt^rcO'd-vO'd-^T}- 

OvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOv 

CNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCN 

•qjaojv 
jo  sXbq 

hi  CN  CO  tJ-  lovO  CnOO  Ov  O hi  CN  CO  Tf  in^O  CnOO  Ov  O h CN  CO  tJ-  lOvO  CNOO  OvO  H 
hhhhhhhhihhCNCNCNCJCNCNCNCNCNCNCOCO 

18 


AUGUST,  1897 


274 


MANCHURIA 


Remarks. 

Squally. 

Shower. 

Showery. 

Heavy  showers. 

Rain  (steady). 

[p.m.  due  south. 
[Waterspout  seen  at  6 
Thunderstorm  with  rain. 
Sharp  showers. 

Rain. 

[showery. 
Overcast  all  day  and 
Sharp  heavy  showers. 

Sharp  showers. 

•sjq  tz 
snoiA3id 
MOU§  JO  UIB^J 

|.8|?.“|  Ijfi  i i?.**i  1 1 I W|  1 1 1 1 8 1 

Wind. 

£ 

c/3 

pC 

Force. 

Light. 

Light. 

Light. 

Light. 

Light. 

Calm. 

Light. 

Light. 

Calm. 

Calm. 

Light. 

Fresh. 

Direc- 

tions. 

w 1 . w II  W W £ . 1 1 £ W £ 

C/3C/3C/3^C/3C/3'c/3C/3:/3C/3</3C/3  £ C/3  C/3  C/3  C/3  WWlfl'Z*  C/3  C/5  C/3"  C/3  C/3 

s 

< 

“ 

J3 

os 

Force. 

i i i 44 i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i 4 ii ii 
jj  3 

Direc- 

tions. 

« « .«  .63  .W 

£c/3C/3C/3C/3C/3C/3C/3C/3C/3C/5££££c/3‘c/3C/3‘c/3C/3C/3Wc/3££c/3££c/3C/3C/3 

Hygrometer  in  Shade. 

£ 

I CO 

lx 

pC 

Ok 

Wet 

Bulb. 

jo  jojo  jo  jo  jo  oo  co 

V Lsb  CnCO  Vf  Tj-sb  VO  COvO  si)  NNSH  CM  H V p|  HOOsO  OnOO  PM  00  M CM  Os 

CNtNCNCNCNlNtNCNCNCNCNCNtNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCN  CnvO  VO  <0  IN  vO  CnvO  so 

Dry 

Bulb. 

jo  JO  JO  JO  JO  JO  JO  CO  CO  JO 

IN  VO  O Ov  Ov  "o  Ovvo  Os  CM  so  Ov  Os  O O "w  T VvO  ts  N V O Ov  CO  COO  « O ^ O 

In  in  oo  cn  in  oo  cn  in  inco  in  in  Cnoo  oo  co  in  In  In  In  In  inco  so  nnns  CnvO  in 

< 

!i 

i Os 

Wet 

Bulb. 

lO  VO  so  VO  SO  so 

m IOVO  SO  INCO  OO  so  INCO  SO  >000  CnCO  IN  CO  Os  Ol  CM  CO  CnvO  so  OO  CO  Os  H tN  CM 

NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN  CnvO  IN  tN  IN  IN  InvO  vO  vO  two  CnvO  vO 

Dry 

Bulb. 

JO  JO  JO  JO  JO  JO  JO  00  JO  00 

Tf  OS  Os  O *0  CM  SON  O CM  Os  Os  CO  CM  CM  SO  Cn  O 00  CM  00  OsvO  CM  Os  so  ts  st  so 

I IN  Cn  IN  00  00  00  00  CnOO  00  IN  CnOO  00  00  00  Cn  IN  00  INCO  NNNNNNNNNN 

Hi 

H a 
a Q 
S < 
O E 

sw 

a 

a z 
E 

H 

S 

< 

(A 

JS 

Os 

Min. 

SO  >0  SO  soso  so  SO  SO  SO  so  SO 

CO  so  IN  IN  IN  SO  tN  CO  tNVO  Tj-vO  so  Co  Tl-  Voo  "tN  Os  CM  Tf  V CM  00  00  O 00  Os  CM  sf  O 

INtNtNtNCNtNtNtNtNtNINtNINtNtN  CnvO  vO  VQ  Is  Ms  CnVO  vO  CnvO  vO  CnvO  Cn 

Max. 

so  so  SO  so  JO  SO 

00  OsTj-Tj-COSOtNCMCMvOOO  rl-  IN  00  so  so  Cn  CM  CM  Tj-rj-CM  h 00  CM  CO  tJ-'o  CM  00  Os 
Cn  00  OOOOOOOOCQOOOOOO  tNOO  00  00  00  00  Cn  CO  00  00  00  CO  00  CNOO  IN  00  00  00  Cn  Cn 

Barometer. 

9 hrs. 

P.M. 

VO  so  w 00  OsvO  CM  0 CM  -t  O 00  Cl  CnvO  O CM  CM  so  Os 00  Os  tJ-  so  CO  O PM  O vO  O 

PM  CO  CO  PM  H CM  CO  CO  CM  H TfsosOTj-Tj-^fTi-Tj-Tj-'tf-OM  so  a SO  so  so  so  sfl  so 

OsOsOsOsOsOsOsOvOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsCsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsCsOsOsOsOs 

PMCMPMPMCMPMPMCMPMCMCMPMPMCMPICMCMCMPMPMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMPMPM 

9 hrs. 

A.M. 

CM  vO  vO  IN  PM  COOO  O soiOM-  | O so  O w 00  00  OOOvO  COO  •stvO  Os  m 00  m m CO 
COCOCOCOCMCMCM-^-COPMH  1 CO  sovO  iOC0^"M-'J-st'OMt-'TSOS0SOiO»fl»O»O 

OsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOsOvOs 

CMCMCMPMPMPMPMCMPMCMPMCMPMCMPMCMPMCMPMPMCMPMCMCMPMPMCMCMCMCMCM 

•qiuojM 
jo  sXbq 

M PM  CO  -vl-  sovO  CNOO  Os  O W CM  CO  •vj- lOvO  tNOO  Os  O w CM  CO  sovO  IN 00  Os  O * 

iHmhhhmhmhihCMCMCMPMPMCMCMCMCMCMCOCO 

SEPTEMBER,  1897 


APPENDIX 


275 


Remarks. 

Light  showers. 

•saq  \z 
snojAajd 
Moaq  jo  uib>t 

00 

1 1 II  1 .« 

Wind. 

2 

2 

Ui 

Jt 3 
as 

Force. 

Stiff- 

breeze. 

Calm. 

Light. 

1 Light. 

u to 

.i3  o 
Q- 

1 

C/3  C/3  C/3  C/3  C/5 

2 

< 

<n 

ii 

X 

OV 

Force,  j 

Fresh. 

Light. 

O M 

ii  C 

•t!  O 

3=  £ . 

C/3  C/3  I?  C/3  C/3'  C/3 

Hygrometer  in  Shade. 

2 

0.' 

m 

■~ 

X 

OV 

2 

< 

C/3* 

Wet 

Bulb. 

VO 

tN  cooo  oo  oo  0 

vO  tNVO  VO  VO 

Dry 

Bulb. 

VO  vO  <N  01  Tt-  rh 

IN  NNNNS 

Wet  1 
Bulb. 

VO  vo  vo 
O 01  Ov  t)-  io  O 

tN  CnvO  vo  vO  tN 

Dry 

Bulb. 

00  00  H (NVO  O 

tN  tN00  Cn  CNOO 

Thermometer 
in  Shade. 

S 

< 

c/3 

J-H 

r G 

o\ 

Min. 

y> 

01  »H  tNO 

In  VO  VO  VO  VO  tN 

Max. 

io  yv  io 
01  CO  In  'co  'co  xt 

00  00  00  CO  00  00 

tN  IN  vo  01  Tt- 

C/3  - 

•vj-  tJ-  <0  VO  vo  vo 

W 

ov 

O'*  Os  Qs  Os  Os  Os 

W 

| 

CM  N <N  C*  (M  <N 

o 

Ov  00  CO  01  O tv 

< 

Cf\ 

£ s' 

Tl-  tJ“  vovo  tv  Tt- 

M-J 

•*3  - 

ov  < 

Ov  Ov  Ov  Ov  Ov  Ov 

01  01  01  01  01  01 

•qjuojM 

h 01  CO  T vovo 

jo  sXbq 

APPENDIX  II 


ITINERARY  OF  THE  JOURNEY  FROM  VLADIVOSTOCK 
TO  LAKE  BAIKAL 


Date. 

Place. 

Population. 

Distance 
from  place 
to  place 
in  versts. 

Total 
distance 
in  versts. 

igoo. 
May  14 

Vladivostock  . 

30,000 

_ 

_ 

,,  15-16 

Habarovsk 

16,000 

719 

— 

„ 17-21 

Novgor  odskaia 

— 

20 

739 

„ „ 

Nishne  Spaskaia 

13 

26 

765 

99  99 

Verkhne  Spaskaia  . 

II 

12 

777 

99  >9 

Zabyllovskaia  . 

61 

15 

792 

99  99 

Lugovaia .... 

82 

IO 

802 

99  99 

Petrovskaia 

5 

14 

816 

99  99 

Voznesenskaia . 

28 

844 

99  99 

Golovina  .... 

582 

32 

876 

99  99 

Stepanova 

421 

15 

891 

99  99 

Voskresenskaia 

210 

18 

909 

„ 22 

Mikhailovo  Semenovskaia 

655 

22 

93i 

99  99 

Mohanko .... 

25 

956 

99  99 

Sungari  River  . 

— 

4 

960 

99  99 

Novinskaia 

— 

15 

975 

99  99 

Kvashninskaia  . 

473 

14 

989 

Ventselevskaia 

788 

IO 

999 

99  99 

i Dobraia  .... 

— 

27 

1,026 

i Nagibovo 

— 

21 

1,047 

99  99 

i Blagoslovennoe 

I,I94 

7 

1,054 

,,  23 

I Puzina  .... 

547 

15 

1,069 

i Ekaterino  Nikolskaia 

i,i95 

25 

1,094 

99  99 

1 Soyuznaia 

4!5 

164 

i,iio£ 

99  99 

' Polikarnovka  . 

— 

17 

I,I27i 

99  99 

Hingan  .... 

— 

22* 

I»I49f 

9 9 99 

Pompeevka 

— 

191 

i,i6g£ 

Dichun  .... 

— 

2II 

1,191 

99  99 

Marinskaia 

4i 

9f 

I,200f 

,,  24 

99  99 

Raddevka 

529 

I0i 

1,21 1 

Storozevka 

269 

25i 

1,236^ 

99  99 

Pashkova 

198 

I3i 

1, 2491 

99  99 

Sagibova  .... 

80 

20f 

I,270£ 

” 

Kasatkina 

112 

281 

i,299i 

(276) 


APPENDIX 


277 


Date. 

Place. 

Population. 

Distance 
from  place 
to  place 
in  versts. 

Total 
distance 
in  versts. 

1900. 
May  25 

Mikhailovskaia 

174 

33 

U332i 

„ ,, 

Innokentevskaia 

304 

19 

1 >35i| 

Skobeltsina 

251 

22f 

i,374 

Nikolskaia 

211 

27 

1,4°! 

99  99 

Kupriianovka  . 

430 

26§ 

1, 427f 

Chesnokovskaia 

567 

35! 

1,463 

,,  26 

Poiarkova 

837 

!3i 

U476! 

,,  ,, 

Konstantinovka 

951 

58! 

U535 

1,601! 

,,  27 

Aigun  .... 

66f 

99  99 

Blagoveschensk 

33>000 

35j 

1,637! 

„ 28 

Verkhne  Blagoveschensk . 

5i4 

9$ 

1,6463 

,,  29 

Ignateva  .... 

708 

18 

1,664! 

Markovo  .... 

1,228 

i6J 

1,681! 

*1  » 

Ekaterinovka  . 

4I4 

4* 

1,685! 

55  99 

Novo  Pokrovka 

258 

16 

I,7OIf 

99  59 

Sergievka 

244 

3 

i,7°4f 

1)  95 

Bibikova  .... 

462 

9 

I»7I3! 

9 9 JJ 

Subotina  .... 

— 

24 

i,737f 

99  59 

Petropavloskoe 

34 

I3f 

i,75i| 

Busseva  .... 

379 

11 

1,762^ 

„ 30 

Korsakova 

297 

13! 

U776J 

99  99 

Samadon 

— 

3ii 

1,807! 

99  99 

Simanova 

280 

17 

1,824^ 

99  99 

Kumarskaia 

229 

23i 

1,847! 

99  9 9 

Alexandrovka  . 

— 

2ii 

1,869! 

9 9 99 

Ushakova 

218 

21$ 

i,8go| 

99  99 

Koltsova  .... 

40 

*3i 

1,904 

9 9 9 9 

Novo  Voskresenskoe 

350 

195 

1,923! 

9 9 99 

Anosova  .... 

419 

5i 

1,929 

9 9 9 9 

Tsagaian. 

— 

26! 

i,955i 

,,  31 

Ermakova 

33 

23I 

i,979 

99  99 

Kuznetsova 

108 

24I 

2,003! 

9 9 99 

Torai 

— 

22| 

2,026| 

99  99 

Cherniaeva 

344 

26| 

2,052! 

June  1 

Olgina  .... 

133 

27f 

2,o8o^ 

99  99 

Vaganova 

— 

28$ 

2,109 

99  9 9 

Tolbuzina 

161 

25$ 

2,134^ 

99  99 

Beketova  .... 

84 

27$ 

2,162 

9 9 99 

Permikina 

145 

32 

2,194 

99  2 

Beitonova 

213 

23 

2,217 

99  9 9 

Staro  Voskresenskoe 

99 

i8* 

2,235! 

9 9 99 

Albazin  .... 

786 

20$ 

2,256 

99  99 

Reinova  .... 

528 

i5i 

2,271! 

99  99 

Orlova  .... 

156 

14S 

2,286 

,,  3 

Elninskaia 

— 

24| 

2,310! 

99  99 

Svirbeeva 

207 

25i 

2,336! 

,»  4 

Sgibneva  .... 

75 

33  i 

2,370 

Ignashina 

124 

27i 

2,397! 

99  99 

Amazar  .... 

61 

32I 

2,430 

,*  5 

Pokrovskaia 

376 

31 

2,461 

i 


278  MANCHURIA 


Distance 

Date. 

Place. 

Population. 

from  place 
to  place 

in  versts. 

1900. 

June 

5 

Ust  Streelka  . 

65 

12! 

Utesnaia 

21 

6 

Povorotnaia 

— 

28! 

19 

Karachanskaia 

— 

24 

Anikino  . 

149 

26 

_ 

7 

Chasovaia 

30 

„ 

Sobolinaia 

— 

21 

Voskresenskaia 

— 

21 

99 

,, 

Mosherdinskaia 

102 

8$ 

J? 

„ 

Gorbitza  . 

5°5 

19$ 

8 

Ust  Chernaia  . 

l6l 

22+ 

„ 

Nishne  Kularskaia  . 

280 

10$ 

„ 

Verkhne  Kularskaia 

535 

4! 

91 

Lunzankina 

83 

7$ 

U st  Kara . 

606 

i°5 

9 

Shilkino  . 

957 

17! 

' • 

19 

Ulegichana 

!05 

9i 

11 

Chalbugina 

207 

4$ 

11 

91 

Botovskaia 

943 

9k 

91 

.. 

Mangidana 

3i7 

4 

11 

„ 

Uktyechina 

308 

18 

11 

IO 

Firsova  . 

254 

9$ 

11 

99 

Eraulskaia 

209 

4 1 

11 

99 

Lomova  . 

612 

5$ 

11 

Molodova 

717 

11 

99 

99 

Farkova  . 

290 

3$ 

99 

99 

Stretensk . 

8,000 

10 

91 

II 

Baian 

Railway 

Station. 

32 

99 

99 

Baiankino 

99 

27 

99 

99 

Nerchinsk 

19 

23 

99 

99 

Shilka  . 

91 

44 

99 

” 

Onon 

99 

23 

99 

11 

Zubarevo 

99 

4° 

99 

99 

Urulga 

11 

37 

91 

99 

Kaidalovo 

99 

27 

99 

99 

Karymskaia 

99 

13 

99 

91 

Makkavyevo  . 

99 

38 

99 

99 

Kruchina 

99 

21 

99 

12 

Chita 

99 

34 

99 

99 

Ingoda 

99 

36 

19 

91 

Yablonovaia  . 

99 

35 

91 

Sokhondo 

99 

22 

99 

19 

Mogzon  . 

11 

39 

99 

99 

Taidut 

99 

39 

99 

99 

Khushenga 

„ 

4° 

99 

99 

Khilok  . 

11 

35 

99 

11 

Bada 

91 

47 

99 

99 

Tolbaga  . 

11 

44 

91 

91 

Tarbagatai 

99 

18 

Total 
distance 
in  versts. 


2, 4731 
2>494§ 
2,523i 
2,547$ 
2,573$ 
2,603^ 
2,624! 
2,645$ 

2,653! 

2.673J 

2,695$ 

2,706 

2,710+ 

2,717! 

2,728 

2,745! 

2,755 

2,759$ 

2,769 

2,773 

2,791 

2,800$ 

2,804! 

2,810^ 

2,82l| 

2,824! 

2,834! 

2,866| 

2,893! 

2,916! 

2,960! 

2,983! 

3,023! 

3,060! 

3,087! 

3,i°°! 

3,138! 

3,159! 

3,i93! 

3,229! 

3,264! 

3,286! 

3,325! 

3,364! 

3,404! 

3,439! 

3,486! 

3,53o! 

3,548! 


to  Lake  Baikal 


Heights  are 


APPENDIX 


279 


Date. 

Place. 

— 

Distance 
from  place 
to  place 
in  versts. 

Total 
distance 
in  versts. 

1900. 
June  13 

Petrovskii  Zavod 

Railway 

Station. 

31 

3,5791 

Kisha  .... 

99 

18 

3,597f 

99  99 

Gorkhon  .... 

99 

14 

3,6h| 

99  99 

Ilka 

9 9 

27 

3,638| 

99  99 

Zaigraevo 

99 

22 

3,66of 

99  99 

Onokhoi  .... 

99 

20 

3,68o§ 

99  99 

Verkhne-Udinsk 

99 

33 

3,7i3f 

99  99 

Tataurovo 

99 

36 

3,749! 

99  99 

Selenga  .... 

99 

39 

3, 788f 

99  99 

Posolskaia 

99 

35 

3,823! 

99  99 

Mysovaia 

99 

44 

3,867! 

99  99 

Lake  Baikal  (whart) 

- 

2 i 

3,870 

[ 


MANCHURIA 


INDEX 


A-chiao,  210. 

A-pu  Lake,  148. 

A-shih-ho,  168. 

Abutilon  avicennce , 11,  186,  191. 
Accountant,  Railway,  60,  65. 

Aconitum  kusnezofii,  195. 
Administration,  155,  168-71. 
Administrator-General,  52. 
Afforestation,  76. 

Aga  River,  51. 

Agar-agar,  71. 

Agassiz,  Mr.,  260. 

Agreement  (Port  Arthur),  45,  160. 

— Railway,  43-64,  85. 

Agricultural  products,  174-98. 
Agriculture,  172-74. 

Ai-h’un.  See  Aigun. 

Aigun,  112,  138,  141,  143,  147,  170, 
261,  277. 

Ailanthus  glandulosa,  199. 

Albazin,  118,  138,  145,  277. 
Alexandrovka,  277. 

Altar,  31. 

Altch’ukha.  See  A-shih-ho. 

Amazar,  122,  277. 

Amban,  160. 

Ambassadors,  137. 

Ammunition,  145. 

Amoor.  See  Amur. 

Amour.  See  Amur. 

Amur,  125. 

Amur,  72,  98,  99,  101,  106,  125,  135- 
147,  236,  261,  276-77. 

— Bay,  86,  92. 

An-pang.  See  Amban. 

An-ping  River,  40. 

An-shan,  37. 

An-shan-chan,  9. 

An-tung  Hsien,  162-63. 

Angara  River,  132. 

Angelica  incequalis , 195. 

Anhui,  54,  166. 

Anikino,  278. 

Aniline  dyes,  258. 

Anosova,  277. 


Antelope,  29,  146,  150. 

Antherasa  Pernyi,  199. 

Ao-tun-ch’eng.  See  Tun-hua. 

Apples,  98,  197. 

Apricots,  251. 

Arachis  hypogcea,  188. 

Arches,  triumphal,  90,  98,  113. 

Arctium  lappa,  195. 

Argoun.  See  Argun. 

Argun,  125,  137-43.  261. 

Ariscema  sp.,  195. 

Arms,  145. 

Armstrong,  Whitworth  & Co.,  101,  132.. 
Armyf  Banner,  167. 

— Chinese,  167. 

Arsenals,  30,  82,  167-68. 

Asarum  sieboldi , 195. 

Asbestos,  217. 

Astilibe  chinensis,  195. 

Astralagus  hoantchy,  195. 

Atractylis  ovata,  195. 

Attack  by  brigands,  24. 

Azaleas,  109. 

Bacillus,  plague,  70-72. 

Bada,  278. 

Badger,  146. 

Baggage,  96,  116. 

Bags,  251. 

Baian,  278. 

Baiankino,  278. 

Baikal,  89,  132. 

Baikal  Lake,  73,  130-32. 

Baikal-ozero,  133. 

Banishment,  144. 

Bank,  Deutsch-Asiatische,  63. 

— Hong- Kong  and  Shanghai,  53. 

— Russo-Chinese,  82,  248. 

Banner  force,  167. 

Bannermen,  155. 

Barges,  100,  104,  hi,  124. 

Barley,  178. 

“ Barley,  Pearl,”  180. 

Barracks,  47. 

Batteries,  82. 

(281) 


INDEX 


282 

Battlefields,  6,  38. 

Bean-cake,  218-24. 

Bean-curd,  183-84,  241-45. 

Bean-oil,  16,  218-24,  241-45. 

Beans,  11,  180-82,  241-45. 

Bear,  146,  150. 

Bedouin,  85. 

Bees,  211. 

Beggars,  80. 

Beitonova,  277. 

Beketova,  277. 

Belen-ho  River,  140. 

Benincasa  cerifera,  196. 

Berlin,  134. 

Bibikova,  116,  277. 

Bikin,  93-4. 

Birch,  94,  149. 

Birten  Lake,  148. 

Birthday,  Queen’s,  109. 

“ Black  Dragon  River.”  See  Amur. 

“ Black  River.”  See  Amur. 
Blacksmiths,  15. 

Blagoslovennoe,  276. 

Blagoveschensk,  72,  75,  113,  261,  277. 

— Verkhne,  277. 

Bluff,  Manchurian,  125. 

Boar,  wild,  146,  150. 

Board,  Sanitary,  69-70,  166. 

Boards,  Five,  159. 

Boats,  239. 

Bombyx  Fantoni,  199. 

— Mori,  201. 

— Pernyi,  199. 

Bones,  buffalo,  251. 

— cow,  251. 

— tiger,  209. 

Borza  River,  51. 

Bosporus  Strait,  86. 

Bostelmann,  Mr.,  123. 

Botovskaia,  128,  278. 

Bouillon,  71. 

Boundaries,  135-41. 

Bran,  178. 

Brandy,  115. 

Brass  buttons,  259. 

Brassica  campestris,  196. 

Brassware,  259. 

Bread,  80,  87. 

Brickfields,  79. 

Bricks,  soda,  145. 

Bridges,  11. 

Brigandage,  23,  145,  170. 

Brigands,  24,  33,  145,  152,  170. 
Bristles,  207,  251. 

Britain,  Great,  65. 

Buckwheat,  179. 

Bureya  River,  no. 


Buriats,  131. 

Busseva,  117,  277. 

Bustard,  146. 

Buttons,  brass,  259. 

Cabbage,  196. 

Cable,  telegraph,  32. 

Cakes,  soda,  145. 

Camel-drivers,  85. 

Cannabis  sativa,  187-88. 

Canton,  166. 

Caps,  deer-skin,  31. 

Caravans,  1,  12. 

Caravansaries,  4,  28,  150. 

Cardiff,  151. 

Carpenters,  29. 

Carpets,  209. 

Cartridges,  30. 

Carts,  goods,  15,  19,  237-38. 

— passenger,  2-3. 

Cash,  87. 

Cassini,  43. 

Castor-oil,  187-88. 

Cat,  wild,  146. 

Cattle,  146. 

Cavalry,  167. 

Cement,  119 
Cemetery,  plague,  69. 

Central  Manchurian  Railway,  52. 
Cereals,  174-80. 

Ceremonies,  Board  of,  159. 
Ch’a-han-han,  138. 

Ch’a  Ho  River,  11. 

Ch’a-lu-ho,  33. 

Chai  (Russian),  103-4. 

Chalbugina,  278. 

Chamberlain,  Imperial,  160. 

Chamois,  210-11. 

Chancellor,  Literary,  161. 
Ch’ang-ch’un  Fu,  22,  50,  148,  164,  168. 
Ch’ang-pai-shan,  30,  148-49. 

Ch’ang-t’u  Fu,  17,  50,  162,  164. 
Channels,  difficult,  m,  120. 
Ch’ao-yang-p’o,  21. 

Charcoal,  26,  30. 

Chasovaia,  126,  278. 

Chefoo,  41,  173. 

Cheliabinsk,  134. 

Ch’eng-te  Hsien,  163. 

Chernaya,  136. 

Cherniaeva,  118,  277. 

Cherry,  109. 

Chesnovskaia,  277. 

Ch’i  Jen,  155. 

Chiang  Chun,  160,  167. 

Chiang  Tou,  186. 

Ch’ien  Shan,  8-9. 


INDEX 


283 


Ch’ien-chang-tou-fu,  184. 

Chihli,  148,  150-1. 

Chilka.  See  Shilka. 

Chin  Hsien,  163. 

Chin-chou  Fu,  52,  162,  164,  166,  167. 
Chin-chou  T’ing,  39,  47,  79-80,  162, 
166,  167. 

Chin-huang,  181. 

Ch’in-wang-tao,  68. 

Chin-yuan,  181. 

China,  135-44- 
Chine.  See  China. 

Chinese,  90. 

Chinese  Eastern  Railway  Co.,  43,  147, 
262. 

flag,  147. 

Ching  Ho,  16. 

Ch’ing  Tou,  181-82. 

Ching-chi  River.  See  Zea. 

Chita,  43,  130-31,  278. 

Cholo  River,  142. 

Chorna  River,  136. 

Chou,  163. 

Christie,  Dr.  14. 

Ch’uan  Ch’ang,  27,  147. 

Chung-hou-so,  52-3. 

Church,  Presbyterian,  of  Ireland,  27. 

— U.P.,  of  Scotland,  13. 

Cigars,  Russian,  115. 

Civil  Office,  Board  of,  159. 

Clams,  251. 

Clarkson  & Co.,  88. 

Clematis  heraclecefolia , 195. 

Cliff,  Amur,  117. 

Cliffs,  1178. 

Climate,  152-54. 

Cloth,  259. 

Clubs,  166. 

Coal,  30,  49,  78,  94,  149,  151,  216-17, 
258,  259. 

Coaling,  101-2,  200-2,  246. 

Cocoons,  200,  246. 

Coffin  wood,  26. 

Coffins,  16,  26,  70. 

Coiffure,  156-57. 

Coix  lachryma,  180-81,  195. 

Colleague,  Russian,  74. 

Colonists,  Chinese,  146. 
Commander-in-Chief,  160. 

Commerce,  Chamber  of,  166. 
Commissioner,  Financial,  75. 

— High,  160. 

— Judicial,  162. 

Concessions,  British,  67. 

— Japanese,  67. 

— mining,  55. 

— railway,  65. 


Confectionery,  177. 

Contract,  loan,  65. 

Convention,  Cassini,  43. 

— Peking,  42-3. 

Convicts,  99. 

Coolies,  railway,  86. 

Copper,  145,  149,  212. 

Corea,  39,  141,  190,  261. 

Corean  forts,  6,  32. 

Coreans,  90. 

Coroner,  165. 

Corporation,  57,  65. 

Corral,  deer,  31. 

Corylus  heterophylla , 198. 

— rostrata,  ig8. 

Cossack  stations,  106-7. 

Cossacks,  1 17. 

Cotton  plant,  186. 

— raw,  259. 

Courier  service,  163-64. 

Crabs,  251. 

Cradle,  birch-bark,  126. 

Cratcegus  pinnatifida,  195,  198. 

Crater,  148. 

Crawford,  Rev.  A.  R.,  27. 

Criminals,  127. 

Crisis,  Chinese,  72. 

Crops,  rotation  of,  180. 

Cross,  the,  115. 

Crustaceans,  212. 

Cucumis  sativus , 196. 

Cucurbitacece,  196. 

Cuscata  chinensis,  195. 

Customs,  Imperial  Maritime,  162,  171, 
240. 

— Inspector-General  of,  164. 

— native,  162,  240. 

Dab-chicks,  32. 

Dalai-Nor  Lake,  141,  142. 

Dalny,  52,  67,  68,  79,  81,  82. 

Dates,  177. 

Declaration,  railway,  64. 

Deer,  29,  31,  146,  150. 

Defences,  160. 

Departments,  Government,  161. 

— Magisterial,  163. 

Devastation,  7. 

Dichun,  276. 

Dictamnns  albus,  195. 

Dispensaries,  69. 

Distilleries,  171,  227-35. 

Districts  (magistracies),  163. 

Dobraia,  276. 

Dock,  82. 

“ Dockyard,”  Kirin,  27,  147. 

Doctors,  Japanese,  69. 


284 


INDEX 


Doctors,  Russian,  70,  76,  86. 

Dog  farms,  205-6. 

Dolichos  lablab,  186. 

— soja , 181,  187-88. 

Dollars,  248. 

Dover,  134. 

“ Dragon  Pool  Hill,”  31. 

“ Dragon  Spring,”  9. 

Dredgers,  81,  127. 

Dress,  Manchu,  156-57. 

Drills,  255. 

Duck,  146. 

Duties,  Customs,  171,  260. 

Dye  plant,  188. 

Dyeing,  145. 

Dyes,  aniline,  258. 

Dynasty,  Great  Pure,  135. 

— Manchu,  31,  49,  135. 

— Ming,  135. 

Earth,  Temple  of,  13. 

Earthworks,  6. 

Education,  159. 

Egypt,  7- 

Ekaterino-Nikolskaia,  107,  276. 
Ekaterinovka,  277. 

Elms,  5,  149. 

Elninskaia,  277. 

Emigrants,  Chinese,  144. 

— Russian,  92. 

Engineer,  Chief,  60. 

— English,  65. 

— European,  65. 

— Japanese,  69. 

Engines,  84. 

Ephedra  vulgaris,  195. 

Equisetum  hiemale , 195. 
Eraulskaia,  278. 

Ergone.  See  Argun. 

Ergune.  See  Argun. 

Erh-tao  Ho  River,  11. 
Erh-tao-ling-tzu,  27. 

Ermakova,  118,  277. 

Escort,  23,  28,  33. 

Evacuation  (Liao-tung),  43. 

“ Ever-White  Mountain,”  30,  148. 
Execution  ground,  28. 

Factories,  98. 

Famine,  54. 

Fan-chia-t’un,  14. 

Fang  Shou  Yu,  77. 

Fares,  railway,  95-6. 

Farkova,  278. 

Feast,  Chinese,  30. 

Feet,  Manchu,  156. 

Felt,  22,  208,  251. 


Feng-Chin-Shan-hai  Tao,  162. 
Feng-hua  Hsien,  ig,  50,  163. 
Feng-huang-ch’eng.  See  Feng-huang 
T’ing. 

Feng-huang  T’ing,  39,  162. 

Feng-t’ien,  142,  147,  150,  159-167. 
Feng-t’ien  Fu,  161-62. 

Ferry,  pendulum,  128,  130. 

Fibre  plants,  186-87. 

Finances,  171. 

Fires,  forest,  94. 

Firewood,  4. 

Fireworks,  117. 

Firs,  5. 

Firsova,  278. 

Fishes,  29,  146,  150,  211-12,  251. 
Fish-skin  Tartars,  97,  148. 

Flag,  Chinese  Eastern  Railway,  147. 

— Russian,  78. 

Flour,  98,  ng,  178,  258,  262. 

Flowers,  9,  120. 

Foraging,  78,  126. 

Foreign  goods,  254-58. 

Forests,  144. 

Formosa,  186. 

Fort,  Corean,  6,  32. 

Forts,  47,  72,  82,  112,  169,  171. 

Fox,  146. 

France,  41. 

Freight,  railway,  95-6. 

Frogs,  29. 

Frostbite,  21,  33. 

Fruits,  195. 

Fu  Chou,  156,  163. 

Fuhkien,  166. 

Fulford,  Mr.  H.  E.,  204. 

Funeral,  Japanese,  98. 

Fungus,  197. 

Furniture,  29. 

Furs,  203-6,  249-50. 

Gadflies,  146. 

Game,  29,  146,  150,  152. 

Gardens,  in,  198. 

— Public,  98. 

Garrisons,  156. 

Gelpcke,  Dr.,  100. 

Genii,  31. 

Gentiana  scabra,  195. 

Gentry,  164. 

Germany,  41. 

Gin  gals,  30. 

Ginnell,  Mr.,  56. 

Ginseng,  148,  191-95,  249. 

— Corean,  193. 

— Japanese,  193. 

Glenshiel , 87. 


INDEX 


285 


Glue,  210,  251. 

Glycine  hispida,  181. 

Glycyrrhiza  glabra,  195. 

— palladijlora,  195. 

Gold,  108,  121,  143-45,  148-49,  151,  171, 
212-16,  247. 

Golden  Horn,  86,  go. 

Golovina,  276. 

Gongota,  13 1. 

Goose,  146. 

Gorbitza,  126,  136,  138,  278. 

Gorkhon,  131,  279. 

Gossypium  herbaceum,  186-88. 
Government,  local,  165. 

— municipal,  165. 

— self,  164. 

Governor,  Civil,  161. 

— Military,  142,  160. 

— Provincial,  161. 

— Vice,  161. 

Governor-General,  142,  160. 

Governors,  Deputy-Lieutenant,  167-68, 
170. 

Grain,  54. 

Gramaphone,  119. 

Granite,  9,  152. 

Graveyards,  5,  11. 

Great  Wall,  17,  141,  162. 

Greig,  Dr.,  27. 

Grodekovo,  92. 

Ground-nuts,  180,  251. 

Grouse,  black,  146. 

Guilds,  165. 

Gun  factory,  13. 

Gunther,  Dr.,  211. 

Ha-erh-pin.  See  Harbin. 

Ha-mo.  Sec  Harbin. 

Habarovsk,  51,  72,  75,  91,  94,  97-103, 
. I43>  147.  262,  276. 

Hai-ch’eng  Hsien,  6, 39,  49,  151,  163-64. 
Hai-ch’eng  River,  6,  49. 

Hai-lung  T’ing,  162. 

Hai-lung-ch’eng,  14,  36. 

Hai-shen-chai,  76. 

Hai-yang,  39. 

Hair,  horse,  207,  251. 

— pigs,  208. 

— raccoon,  251. 

Hamelin  Strait,  86. 

Han,  136-37. 

Han-chiin,  155. 

Han-ta-han,  210. 

Harbin,  49-50,  94,  105,  262. 

Hare,  146. 

Harmonium,  119. 

Hawkers,  80. 


Headmen,  164. 

Health  Officer,  86. 

Hei-chi,  181. 

Hei  Tou,  181-82. 

Hei-lung-chiang,  72,  114,  142-46,  155, 
170. 

— River.  See  Amur. 
Hei-shan-tsui-tzu,  23. 

Hei  Ho,  142. 

Helampo,  32,  114,  261. 

Hemp,  11,  186-88,  251. 

Hides,  210,  251. 

Highroad,  Imperial,  32. 

Highway,  trade,  3-4. 

Hingan,  107,  145,  276. 

Hinka,  Lake,  93,  140,  146,  148. 
Hinkai.  See  Hinka. 
Ho-erh-mo-lo-ching,  13 1. 

Holcus  sorghum , 174-76. 

Holland,  Mr.  W.,  206. 

Honan,  54. 

Hong-Kong,  6g,  253. 

Hormoldzin,  139. 

Horns,  deer,  209,  251. 

Horses,  104,  118. 

Hospital,  Mission,  13. 

— observation,  69. 

— plague,  69. 

Hotels,  88,  95. 

Hou-pai-tzu,  23. 

Houpitou.  See  Hu-pu-t’u. 

Houptou.  See  Hu-pu-t’u. 

Hsiang-yao,  164. 

Hsiao  Ch’ang-pai  Shan,  30. 
Hsiao-hei-shan,  65-66. 

Hsiao-ku-shan,  35. 

Hsiao-mi,  176. 

Hsiao-wu-tou,  182. 

Hsiao-yen-t’ai,  11. 

Hsien,  163. 

Hsin  Ch’eng  (Petuna),  143. 
Hsin-lung-tien,  26. 

Hsin-min  T’ing,  53,  65,  162,  239. 
Hsin-min-t’un.  See  Hsin-min  T’ing. 
Hsing-an  Mountains,  50,  143. 
Hsing-king  (Hsing-ching),  17,  162. 
Hsiu-yen  Chou,  39,  152,  163. 
Hsiung-yao,  77,  156,  164. 

Hsu  Ta-jen,  45. 

Hsiin-fu,  46. 

Hu  Yiin-mei,  53. 

Hu-lan  River,  143,  144,  262. 

Hu-lan  T’ing,  50,  170. 

Hu-lun-pei-’rh,  51. 

Hu-pu-t’u,  140,  146. 

Hua-yiian-k’ou,  39. 

Huang-lin-tzu,  11. 


286 


INDEX 


Huang-mi,  176-78. 

Huang-tou,  181-82. 

Hun  River,  12,  149. 

Hun  Ho  River,  7,  49,  151. 
Hun-ch’un,  32,  140,  147,  168. 
Hung-kou-ho,  79. 

Hung-tou,  181. 

Hunters,  167. 

Hunting-ground,  Imperial,  30,  173. 
Hurka  (Mu-tan)  River,  147-49. 

Ice,  116,  126,  152-53. 

Ice-breaker,  90,  132-33. 

Ignashina,  121,  277. 

Ignateva,  277. 

Ignatina.  See  Ignashina. 
Ilinskipost,  115. 

Ilka,  279. 

Iman,  93,  147,  262. 

Indemnity,  43. 

India,  7. 

Indian  corn,  179-80. 

Indigo,  22,  188. 

Indigofera  tinctoria,  188. 
Industries,  218-34. 

Infantry,  167. 

Ingoda,  278. 

Ingoda,  128. 

Ingoda  River,  51,  130. 

Inhabitants,  155. 

Innokentevskaia,  no,  277. 
Insurance  offices,  169. 

Integrity  of  China,  47. 

Intendants,  161. 

International  questions,  161. 
Inundations,  51,  93,  144. 

Invasion,  Japanese,  39-40. 

— Russian,  72. 

Irkutsk,  116,  118,  134. 

Iron,  151,  217. 

— old,  257. 

“ Iron  Range,”  15. 

Jade,  152. 

Jadestone,  251. 

James,  Mr.  H.  E.  M.,  12,  28,  30. 
Japan,  190. 

Japanese,  90. 

— invasion,  39-40. 

— trade,  241. 

— War,  241. 

Jeans,  255. 

Jen-huai  Hsien,  162. 

Job’s  Tears,  180-81,  251. 

Jujubes,  177. 

Junks,  112,  143,  147,  260-61. 


Ka-lou,  21. 

Kai-chow.  See  Kai-p’ing  Hsien. 
Kai-chow  River,  47,  76-77. 

Kai-p’ing  Hsien,  40,  163-64,  166. 
K’ai-yiian  Hsien,  17,  147,  163-64. 
Kaidalovo,  44,  51,  130,  278. 

Kalgan,  74. 

Kan-wang-chai,  6. 

K’ang-p’ing  Hsien,  163. 

Kao-liang,  174-75. 

Kara  River,  127. 

Karachanskaia,  278. 

Karymskaia,  278. 

Kasatkina,  276. 

Kerbetchi  River,  136. 

Khailar,  51,  170. 

Khamardaban  Mountains,  133. 

Khan,  137. 

Khila  River,  51. 

Khilok,  278. 

Khilok  River,  13 1. 

Khor  River,  94. 

Khoun-tchoun.  See  Hun-ch’un. 
Khushenga,  278. 

Kiakhta,  74,  131. 

Kirin,  26,  142,  144-50,  160,  168. 

Kisha,  131,  279. 

Kiukiang,  86. 

Kiya  River,  94. 

Koltsova,  277. 

Konstantinovka,  111,  277. 

Korsakova,  277. 

Kou-pang-tzu,  66. 

Krasnaia-Retchka,  94. 

Krasnoiarsk,  134. 

Kruchina,  278. 

Ku-ch’eng-tzu,  37. 

K’uan-ch’eng-tzu.  See  Ch’ang-ch’un 
Fu. 

Kuan-ti  Miao,  26. 

Kuan-tien  Hsien,  162-63. 

Kuan-tung,  167,  246. 

Kuan-yin  Miao,  108. 

Kuan-yin-shan,  108,  145. 

Kuang  Hsii,  56,  64,  135. 

Kuang-ning  Hsien,  163. 

Kularskaia,  Nishne,  278. 

— Verkhne,  278. 

Kumara  River,  117. 

Kung-so,  166. 

Kunst  & Albers,  88,  95. 

Kuo-chia-p’u,  21. 

Kupriianovka,  277. 

Kuznetsova,  277. 

Kvashninskaia,  276. 

Kwei-chow,  15. 


INDEX 


287 


La-yao-tzu,  33,  177. 

Labour,  agricultural,  173. 

Lactuca  brevirostris,  199. 

Lai-chou,  196 
Lama,  12. 

Lan-tien,  188. 

Land  tax,  171. 

Langenaria  vulgaris , 196. 

Language,  Manchu,  158. 

Lanterns,  18. 

Lao-pai-shan.  See  Ch’ang-pai-shan. 
Lao-yeh  Ling  Pass,  26,  32. 

Lat,  7. 

Launches,  steam,  31,  118,  144. 

Lead,  127,  145,  149,  212. 

Lease  (Port  Arthur),  45. 

— (Ta-lien-wan),  45. 

Leather,  251. 

Lefu  River,  93. 

Legation,  Russian,  74. 

Legumine,  182-83. 

Leopard,  146. 

Li  Hung-chang,  45. 

Liao  River,  67,  71,  142,  149. 
Liao-chou-wei,  172. 

Liao-hai-t’un,  36. 

Liao-hsi,  142. 

Liao-tung,  142,  160. 

— Gulf,  142,  150. 

— Peninsula,  84,  151. 

Liao-yang  Chou,  4,  10,  36,  4g,  151, 
163-64. 

Licenses,  171. 

Life,  animal,  133. 

Likin,  171. 

Lilium  sp.,  197. 

Ling-yen-ssu,  26. 

Liquorice,  195,  251. 

Listvianichnaia,  132-33. 

Lithosperum  erythrorhizon,  135. 

Loan,  railway,  56. 

Loaves,  116. 

Lomova,  278. 

London,  134. 

“ Long  White  Mountain,”  12. 
Lu-kou-ch’iao,  52. 

Lu-sheng,  49,  78. 

Lii-tou,  181,  184. 

Luffa  petola,  196. 

Lugovaia,  276. 

Lumber,  171. 

Lumberer,  148. 

Lung-ch’iian  Ssu,  9. 

Lung-t’an  Shan,  31. 

Lung-wan.  See  Nung-an  Hsien. 
Lunzankina,  278. 


Ma-chien-t’ai,  17. 

Macaroni,  251. 

Machinery,  258. 

Magistrates,  163,  164,  168. 

Mai-mai-kai.  See  Feng-hua  Hsien. 
Maize,  179. 

Makkavyevo,  278. 

Manchu,  31,  hi,  135,  139,  147-48^ 
155-56. 

Manchuria — 

Administration,  159-71. 

Agriculture,  172-74. 

Area,  142-43,  147,  150. 

Army,  167. 

Boundaries,  135-42. 

Brigandage,  23,  144,  169. 

Climate,  152-54. 

Constitution,  135. 

Education,  159. 

Finances,  171. 

Industries,  218-35. 

Inhabitants,  155. 

Invasions,  39-40,  72. 

Language,  158-59 
Physical  features,  142-52. 
Population,  155. 

Products,  174-235. 

Railways,  43-69. 

Recent  events,  39-72. 

Taxation,  170-71. 

Trade,  236-61. 

Mangidana,  278. 

Manila,  in,  190. 

Manure,  16. 

Mao-erh-shan,  147-50. 

Mao-tou,  186. 

Marinskaia,  276. 

Markovo,  116,  277. 

Marks,  leading,  101. 

Matches,  258. 

Mats,  5,  187,  251. 

Mauser  Rifles,  167. 

Mayers,  Mr.  W.  F.,  163. 

Meals,  ships’,  102-3,  io9- 
Medicines,  69,  191,  195,  251,  259.. 
Meilorko  River,  137. 

Melon,  251. 

Mergen,  143,  170. 

Meritken,  137. 

Metals,  257. 

Midges,  146. 

Mikhailo  Semenovskaia,  276. 
Mikhailovskaia,  277. 

Mill,  bean-oil,  218-24 

— powder,  30,  168. 

— steam,  262. 


•288 


INDEX 


Mill,  wind,  98,  262. 

Millet,  Italian,  175-77,  240. 

— spiked,  175-77,  240,  251. 

— tall,  174-76,  240. 

Minerals,  212-17. 

Mines,  coal,  49,  53,  66,  78,  217. 

— gold,  108,  119,  121,  145,  212-16. 

— iron,  53,  217. 

— lead,  53,  127. 

— silver,  127. 

Ming  Dynasty,  135,  156,  172. 

Minister,  Chinese,  62. 

— H.B.M.,  63,  74. 

Mints,  248. 

Mission,  Corean,  193. 

— Irish,  22,  27,  28. 

— Scotch,  7,  10,  12. 

Mistletoe,  10,  14,  94. 

Mitrofanov,  143. 

Mo-ch’i-shan,  49. 

Mo-ho,  121,  145,  213,  214. 

Mogzon,  278. 

Mohanko,  276. 

Molluscs,  211-12. 

Molodova,  278. 

Mongolia,  17,  67,  131,  135,  141-42,  146, 
147,  150,  173. 

Mongols,  17,  144,  155,  158. 

Mortgage,  railway,  58. 

Mortuaries,  166. 

Moscovie.  See  Muscovy. 

Moscow,  68,  73,  134. 

Mosherdinskaia,  278. 

Mosquitoes,  146. 

Moukden,  13,  14,  36,  49,  52,  72,  135, 
142,  161,  163,  166. 

Mu-tan  (Hurka)  River,  147-49. 
Municipal  Government,  165. 

Muraviev  Amurski,  Count,  98,  115. 
Muscovy,  137,  138. 

Museum,  89,  98. 

Mushrooms,  251. 

Musk,  209,  251. 

Mysovaia,  13 1,  133,  279. 

Nagadan,  51. 

Nagibovo,  276. 

Nan  T’a,  12. 

Nan-p’iao,  57,  66. 

Nan-san-shih-li-p’u,  81. 

Nerchinsk,  119,  130,  135,  140,  278. 
Nerchugan,  105. 

Neronov,  100. 

Nevelski,  Admiral,  89. 

Nevelski , Admiral,  105. 

Newchwang,  1,  40,  66-9,  70-1,  145,  149- 
51,  165-66. 


Nicotiana  rustica,  190. 

“ Niet ,”  88,  100,  113. 

Nikolaevsk,  99,  144. 

Nikolsk,  44,  51,  92-3. 

Nikolskaia,  277. 

Nikolskoe.  See  Nikolsk. 

Ning-hai  Hsien,  162. 

Ning-yiian  Chou,  163. 

Ninguta,  148,  168. 

Nipchu.  See  Nerchinsk. 

Nishne  Kularskaia,  278. 

Nishne  Spaskaia,  276. 

Niu-chia-t’un,  75. 

Niu-chuang,  1,  37,  39,  164. 

Nonni  River,  51,  142,  144,  146,  262. 
Nose-protectors,  21. 

Note,  Additional,  65-6. 
Novgorodskaia,  276. 

Novinskaia,  276. 

Novo-Kumarskaia,  117,  277. 

— Pokrovka,  277. 

— Tsuruhaitu,  214. 

— Voskresenskoe,  277. 

Nu-erh-ho,  57. 

Nung-an  Hsien,  168. 

Nurhachu,  13,  17,  135,  148,  155,  158. 

Oak,  23,  78,  149,  199. 

Oats,  hi. 

Ocimum  basilicum , 197. 

Offenders,  political,  127. 

Officers,  Russian,  105. 

Oil,  bean,  187-88,  218-24. 

— castor,  187-88,  251. 

— cotton,  187-88. 

— hemp,  187-88. 

— kerosene,  258. 

— Perilla,  187-88. 

— refuse,  251. 

— sesamum,  187-88. 

Oil  seeds,  187-88. 

Olgina,  277. 

Omsk,  134. 

Onokhoi,  279. 

Onon,  278. 

Onon  River,  51. 

Opium,  Indian,  190,  254. 

— native,  171,  189-90,  251,  259. 

— Persian,  190. 

Orlova,  277. 

Ornaments,  Jade,  152. 

Orotchi,  126. 

Ostend,  134. 

Otter,  land,  146. 

Oud,  137. 

Oudi.  See  Oud. 

Ourouan,  136. 


INDEX 


289 


Oussouri.  See  Ussuri. 

Outlaws,  i6g. 

Oxen,  34. 

Pa-chia-tzii,  36. 

Pa-li-chuang,  10. 

Pa-li-ho-tzu,  6. 

Peeonia  albijlora,  195. 

Pagoda,  11,  12,  77. 

Pai-ling  River,  140,  146. 

Pai-mei,  181. 

Pai-t’a-p’u,  12. 

Pai-tou,  181. 

Pai-tu-na.  See  Petuna. 

Palace,  13. 

Palisade,  11,  17,  147,  172. 

Panax  ginseng,  191-95. 

— quinquefolium , 194. 

Panicum  miliaceum , 176-77. 

Papaver  somniferum,  189. 

Paper,  258,  259. 

Partridge,  29,  146,  150. 

Pashkova,  no,  276. 

Passengers,  124,  260. 

Passports,  74. 

Pavloff,  Mr.,  45. 

Pawnshops,  15. 

Pearl-fishers,  167. 

Pears,  251. 

Peasants,  Russian,  92. 

Peat,  151. 

Pei-t’uan-lin-tzu.  See  Sui-hua  T’ing. 
Peking,  53,  74,  135,  140. 

People,  155-59. 

Perilla  ocymoides , 187-88. 

Permikina,  277. 

Pestilence,  6g. 

Petropavloskoe,  277. 

Petrovskaia,  276. 

Petrovskii  zavod,  279. 

Petuna,  144,  168. 

Peucedareum  terebinthaceum,  195. 
Phaseolus  mungo,  18 1,  184-86. 

— radiatus,  182. 

Pheasant,  29,  133,  146,  150. 
Phellodendron  amorense , 195. 
Philadelphia,  48. 

Phragmites  communis , 177,  187. 
Phyonyang,  39. 

Physical  features,  132-53. 

P’i-tzu-wo,  39,  47,  79. 

Picottah,  7. 

Pien-lien-ch’eng,  19. 

Pien-tou,  186. 

Pien-wu-tou,  182. 

Pigs,  11,  146,  207. 

Pin-chou  T’ing,  168. 


Pine,  94,  142,  149,  251. 

Pinus  coraiensis , 195. 

Pisum  sativum,  186. 

Plague,  bubonic,  69-72,  166,  260. 

Plane,  149. 

Plantago  major , 195. 

Platycordon  grandijiorum,  195. 
Plenipotentiaries,  137. 

Poiarkova,  no,  277. 

Pokrovskaia,  123,  143,  277. 

Police,  military,  168. 

Polikarnovka,  276. 

Polygonum  fagopyrum,  179. 

— tinctorium,  188. 

Pompeevka,  108,  145,  276. 

Pongees,  246. 

Ponies,  126,  146. 

Pope,  Russian,  115. 

Poppy,  opium,  189. 

Population,  155. 

Port  Arthur,  39,  45,  46-7,  74,  81-2,  163, 
246. 

Ports,  small,  152. 

Posolskaia,  279. 

Post,  Imperial  Chinese,  164. 

Postal  service,  163. 

Potato,  in,  195,  251. 

Povorotnaia,  126,  278. 

Powder  mills,  30,  168. 

Prawns,  251. 

Prefectures,  162,  168. 

— sub-,  162,  168,  170. 

Prelle,  Mr.,  95,  100. 

Pretoria,  105. 

Priests,  Russian,  98. 

Primorsk,  50,  90,  101,  261. 

Principality,  Manchu,  35. 

Processions,  Russian,  98. 
Proclamation,  Japanese,  41-2. 
Proclamations,  158. 

Primus  japonica,  195 

— tomentosa,  198. 

Ptarmica  sibirica,  195. 

P’u  Ho  River,  14. 

Pu-k’uei,  143. 

P’u-la-tien,  47,  49. 

Pu-t’e-ha,  170. 

Pulse,  181. 

Pumice,  148. 

Punishments,  Board  of,  159. 

Puzina,  107,  276. 

Pyrus  baccata,  197. 

— sinensis,  197. 

— spectabilis,  197. 

Quail,  146. 

Quarantine,  86. 


290 


INDEX 


Quayle,  Lieutenant,  R.N.,  i. 

Quercus  mongolica , 199. 

Raddevka,  108,  145,  276. 

Rafts,  107,  117,  121. 

Railway,  Central  Manchurian,  47,  4g, 
52,  68,  73,  83-4. 

— Imperial  Chinese,  52-64,  67. 

— Siberian,  68,  107,  125. 

— South-Baikal,  133. 

— Trans-Baikal,  130-2. 

— Trans-Manchurian,  43-4,  52,  92. 

— Ussuri,  91-5. 

Rainfall,  153,  263-75. 

Recruits,  Russian,  101,  105. 

Reeds,  177. 

Registrar,  Land,  165. 

Reinova,  119,  277. 

Remounts,  Russian,  101. 

Reserve,  Imperial,  127. 

Reservists,  Manchu,  157. 

Revenue,  171. 

— Customs,  260. 

Rice,  178,  259. 

Ricinus  communis , 87-8,  195. 

Ricks,  15. 

Roads,  153,  237. 

Roe-deer,  146. 

Roses,  1 16. 

Rotation  of  crops,  180. 

Rouble,  effect  of,  114. 

Rugs,  208,  209. 

Russia,  41,  74,  136-41,  167. 

Russians,  72,  73,  90,  135. 
Russo-Chinese  Bank,  82,  248. 

Sa-ha-lien,  114. 

Sable,  146. 

— trap,  204. 

“ Saddle  Hill,”  9,  37. 

Saghalien-oula,  136,  137. 

Sagibova,  276. 

St.  Petersburg,  73,  140,  141. 

Sales’  tax,  171. 

Salmon,  106. 

Salt,  171,  224-26,  237. 

Salts,  145. 

Samadon,  277. 

Samovar,  103. 

Samshu,  226-35,  251. 

San  Chiang,  165,  166. 

San-hsing.  See  San-sing. 
San-shih-li-p’u,  79. 

San-sing,  149,  152,  168. 

Sanatorium,  76. 

Scenery,  Amur,  108,  118. 

— Shilka,  125,  128. 


Schizandra  chinensis,  195. 

Schools,  Manchu,  158. 

Seaboard,  Manchurian,  141,  151. 
Seaweed,  258. 

Seed,  apricot,  251. 

— melon,  251. 

— pine,  251. 

— sesamum,  251. 

Seeds,  oil-yielding,  187-88. 

Selenga,  131,  279. 

Selenga  River,  13 1. 

Sergievka,  277. 

Sericulture,  78. 

Sesamum  orientale,  187-88,  251. 

Setaria  italica,  176-78. 

Settlement,  Russian,  67. 

Sgibneva,  121,  277. 

Sha-ho-tzii,  g-10,  37. 

Shadouf,  7. 

Shan-hai-kuan,  52,  150,  160,  162. 
Shanghai,  74-5,  86. 

Shansi,  54,  166. 

Shantung,  165,  173. 

Sheep,  146. 

Sheetings,  255. 

Shen-yang,  142,  160. 

Sheng-king,  142,  160. 

Shensi,  54. 

Shih-ch’ang,  23. 

Shih-ch’iao-tzu,  4. 

Shih-san-t’ai-tzu,  79. 

Shih-shan-chan,  66. 

Shih-ta-hsing-an,  136. 

Shilka,  278. 

Shilka  River,  101,  116,  125,  136,  140, 
141,  143,  261,  278. 

Shilkino,  128,  278. 

Shimonoseki  Treaty,  40. 

Shipping,  259-60. 

Shoes,  Manchu,  29,  156-7. 

Shops,  Russian,  98,  119. 

Shou  Shan,  10. 

Shrimps,  251. 

Shuang-ch’eng  T’ing,  50,  168. 
Shui-shih-ying-tzu,  143. 

Shun  Chih,  135,  160. 

Siaoheichan.  See  Hsiao-hei-shan. 
Siberia,  142. 

Silk  goods,  259. 

— reeling,  145,  200. 

— wild,  199-203,  246. 

Silver,  127,  149,  212. 

Simanova,  277. 

Sinews,  251. 

Sinminting.  See  Hsin-min  T’ing. 
Sira-muren,  151. 

Skins  (furs),  146,  203-7,  249-50. 


INDEX 


291 


Skobeltzina,  277. 

Slaves,  144. 

Sleighs,  26,  no,  237. 

“ Small  Ever- White  Mountain,”  30. 
Snakes,  120. 

Snipe,  146. 

Snow,  8,  15,  21,  27,  31,  32,  118,  153, 
237- 

Snowstorm,  15. 

Sobolinaia,  278. 

Soda,  145,  217. 

Soil,  148. 

Sokhondo,  278. 

Solanum  melongena , 196. 

— tuberosum,  195. 

Soldiers,  Chinese,  121. 

— Russian,  80. 

Son’gatcha.  See  Sung-a-ch’a. 
Sovereignty,  Chinese,  47. 

Soy  Bean,  181. 

Soyuznaia,  276. 

Sparrows,  29,  133. 

Spars,  raising,  104. 

Spaskaia,  Nishne,  276. 

— Verkhne,  276. 

Spheres,  railway,  65. 

Spirits,  11. 

Springs,  mineral,  8,  32,  151. 

Sprouts,  bean,  182. 

Spruce,  149. 

Squall,  112. 

Squirrel,  146. 

Ssu-chia-t’un,  in. 

Ssu-ch’uan,  15. 

Ssu-p’ing-kai,  18. 

Stalks,  millet,  4,  176. 

Staro  Tsuruhaitu,  214. 

— Voskresenskoe,  277. 

Stations,  Cossack,  106. 

— wood,  101-2. 

Steamers,  mail,  99,  115. 

— river,  102,  no. 

Stepanova,  276. 

Steppes,  144-46. 

Still,  spirit,  233. 

“ Stone  Bridge,”  4. 

Stone,  mill,  3. 

“ Stone  Quarry,”  23. 

Storozevka,  276. 

Straw,  millet,  177. 

Strawberry,  109. 

Stretensk,  73-5,  128,  143,  278. 
Sturgeon,  29,  106,  146,  150. 

Subotina,  277. 

Subsidy,  Provincial,  171. 

— State,  157. 

Sugar,  237,  258-59. 


Sui-fen  River,  146. 

Sui-hua  T’ing,  170. 

Sulphur,  8,  151. 

Sun-chia-t’ai,  16,  36. 

Sundries,  251,  257-58. 

Sung  Taotai,  30. 

Sung-a-ch’a,  140,  146. 

Sung-hua  Chiang.  See  Sungari. 
Sungari  River,  27,  30,  101,  107,  138-39, 
I42'43>  145-150,  236,  262. 

Sungari,  126. 

Superintendent  of  Trade,  160. 
Svirbeeva,  119,  277. 

Swan,  146. 

Swatow,  69. 

Sycee,  248. 

Syndicate,  Railway,  53,  56. 

Ta  Ch’ing  Ch’ao,  135,  139. 

Ta  Tsing.  See  Ta  Ch’ing. 
Ta-fang-shen,  49,  80. 

Ta-hei-lin-tzu,  21. 

Ta-ku-shan,  35,  48,  246. 

Ta-lien-wan,  39,  45-47,  81. 

Ta-ling  River,  52. 

Ta-pa-chia-tzu,  163. 

Ta-sheng,  167. 

Ta-shih-ch’iao,  48,  75. 

Ta-shui-ho,  26. 

Ta-tung-k’ou,  149,  261. 

Ta-wu-tou,  182. 

Ta-yang  River,  48. 

Tael,  Haikwan,  171. 

T’ai  Tsung,  13. 

T’ai-p’ing-k’ou,  108,  145. 

T’ai-tzu  Ho  River,  n. 

Taidut,  278. 

Tamara,  146. 

T’ang-chih,  8. 

T’ang-kang-tzu,  8. 

Tanning,  29. 

Taotai,  149,  161-62,  168. 

Tarbagatai,  278. 

Tartar,  17,  135. 

Tartars,  97,  148. 

Tasmania,  144. 

Tataurovo,  279. 

Tax,  Land,  171. 

Taxation,  69,  75,  171. 

Tchernaya.  See  Chernaya. 

Tea,  103,  119,  259. 

Telegraph  lines,  26,  32,  115. 

— office,  14. 

Temperature,  116,  152. 

Temples,  8,  26,  31,  32,  35,  108. 

Thibet,  209. 

Thief,  gold,  108. 


292 


INDEX 


Thou-men-kiang.  See  Tumen. 

“ Thousand  Hills,”  8-9. 

Three  Eastern  Provinces,  135,  142. 
Tiao,  89. 

T’ieh-ling  Hsien,  14-15,49,74, 151,  163, 
164,  239. 

T’ien-chuang-t’ai,  40,  164,  239. 
Tientsin,  53,  68,  139,  145. 

Tiger,  146,  150,  250-51. 

Timber,  28,  152. 

T’ing,  162. 

Titoflf,  Mr.,  75. 

Tobacco,  11,  190-191,  251,  259. 
Tolbaga,  278. 

Tolbuzina,  118,  277. 

Tombs,  Imperial,  17,  49. 

Torai,  277. 

Tou  Kan-tzu,  183. 

Tou-fu,  183-84. 

— nao,  183. 

— p’i,  184. 

Tour  River,  140. 

Tow-boats,  101. 

Trade,  15,  68,  236-62. 

— Frontier,  261-62 

— value,  262. 

Trader,  148. 

Trains,  Siberian,  i2g. 

Trans-Baikal,  142,  262. 

Trans- Manchurian  Railway,  51. 
Transport,  67. 

Trap,  sable,  204. 

Trapper,  148. 

Treasure,  241,  258. 

Treaties,  64. 

Treaty  (Aigun),  147. 

— (Nerchinsk),  119,  136,  140. 

— (Peking),  140. 

— (St.  Petersburg),  141. 

— (Shimonoseki),  40. 

— (Tientsin),  139,  165. 

Trees,  5,  120,  149. 

Troops,  54. 

Trout,  146. 

Ts’af  Chu,  167. 

Tsagaian,  277. 

Ts’ai  Ho  River,  14,  15. 

Tsitsihar,  72,  112,  142,  143,  170. 
Tsung-tu,  46. 

Tsuruhaitu,  Novo,  214. 

— Staro,  214. 

Tu-men  River,  140,  141,  147,  148. 
T’u-ssu,  202. 

Tun  River,  143. 

Tun-hua  Hsien,  168. 
T’ung-chiang-tzu,  17,  149,  164,  239. 
T’ung-hua  Hsien,  163. 


T’ung-hua  River,  149. 

Tung-pien  Tao,  162. 

Tung-san-sheng,  135,  142. 

Tung-tou-fu,  184. 

Tunnels,  51,  131. 

Turga  River,  51. 

Tussah,  202. 

T’zu-lu-shu,  18. 

Uda  River,  13 1. 

Udinsk,  Verkhne-,  131,  279. 
Uktyechina,  278. 

Ulegichana,  278. 

Urulga,  278. 

Ushakova,  277. 

Ussuri  Bay,  86. 

— River,  93,  139-41,  143,  146-8. 

Ust  Chernaia,  278. 

— Kara,  127,  278. 

— Streelka,  278. 

Utesnaia,  278. 

Vaganova,  118,  277. 

Vegetables,  195-96. 

Ventselevskaia,  276. 

Verkhne  Blagoveschensk,  277. 

— Kularskaia,  127,  278. 

— Spaskaia,  276. 

Verkhne-Udinsk,  131,  279. 

Vermicelli,  185-86,  251. 

Vladimir  Monomach,  114. 
Vladivostock,  44,  51,  74,  75,  86,  88-91, 

146,  262. 

Vodka,  no,  119. 

Volcanic  Ranges,  144. 

Voskresenskaia,  276,  278. 
Voskresenskoe,  Novo,  277. 

— Staro,  277. 

Voznesenskaia,  276. 

Wa-fang-tien,  4g,  78,  164. 

Wall,  Great,  52,  64,  66,  141,  162. 
Wallace,  Sir  D.  M.,  85. 

Walnut,  149. 

War,  54. 

War,  Chino- Japanese,  39-40. 

Warsaw,  134. 

Wax,  Bees,  211,  251. 

— white,  259. 

Weasel,  146. 

Wei-yiian-p’u-men,  35,  147. 

Wells,  7. 

Wen  Hsiang,  13. 

Wheat,  98,  178,  251,  259,  262. 

Whip,  18,  238. 

Whisky,  115. 

Willow  twigs,  37. 


INDEX 


293 


Willows,  5,  17,  149. 

Wine,  258. 

Winter,  17. 

Wolf,  148. 

Woodcock,  146. 

Wood-station,  101-2. 

Woollens,  256-57. 

Works,  Board  of,  159. 

Wu-ch’ang  T’ing,  168. 

Wu-la,  167. 

— grass,  29,  210. 

— shoes,  29. 

— Tsung-kuan,  167. 

Wu-lun-mu  River,  136. 

Wu-tou,  181-3. 

Ya-lu  River,  39,  41,  147,  148,  149,  150. 
Yablonoi  Mountains,  131,  138,  139. 
Yablonovaia,  278. 

Yacsa,  138. 

Yang-tsze  River,  64,  108. 

Yao-chou  Miao,  76. 

Yao-chou-shan,  76. 

Yarn,  cotton,  37,  254-5. 

Yatung,  209. 

Yeh-ho,  35. 


Yellow  Sea,  141,  150. 

Yen-t’ai,  11. 

Yi  Chou,  163. 

Yi  Hsiin  Tao,  162. 

Yi-mien-p’o,  51. 

Yi-mu  River,  22. 

Yi-t’ung  Chou,  34,  168. 

Yi-t’ung  River,  23. 

Ying-k’ou  T’ing,  151,  162,  163. 
Ying-kow.  See  Newchwang. 

Ying-tzu.  See  Newchwang. 
Yii-p’i-ta-tzu,  g8,  148. 
Yii-shih-ch’eng-tzu.  See  Ch’ang-t’u  Fu. 
Yun-tou,  186. 

Yunnan,  15. 

Zabelovskaia,  276. 

Zaigraevo,  279. 

Zakuska,  iog. 

Zea  Mais,  179. 

Zea  River,  112,  139. 

Zeia.  See  Zea. 

Zizyphxis  vulgaris , 177,  198. 

Zolotoi  Rog,  86. 

Zone,  Neutral,  46,  47. 

Zubarevo,  278. 


THE  ABERDEEN  UNIVERSITY  PRESS  LIMITED 

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